STRATEGIES FOR THE IMPROVED MANAGEMENT OF 
COASTAL ZONE OF SRI LANKA 
By.Miss.U.A.P.K.Dissanayake 
A Dissertation submitted iq partial fulfillment of the requirement for 
the Master of Science Degree in Environmental Management 
Research Work supervised 
By 
Prof.S.S.L.Hettiarachchi and Dr.S.P.Samarawickrama 
Department of Civil Engineering 
University of Moratuwa 
Moratuwa 
Sri Lanka 
1 
University of Moratuwa 
Julv 2005 
84388 
84388 
D e c l a r a t i o n 
I certify that this dissertation does not incorporate without acknowledgement any material 
previously submitted for a Degree or Diploma in any university and to the best my 
knowledge and belief it does not contain any material previously published or written or 
orally communicated by another person except where due reference is made in the text. 
To the best of my knowledge the above particulars are correct 
./MJJ-A 
Prof.S.S.L.Hettiarachchi 
J. L . u 
Dr.S.P.Samarawickrama 
Acknowledgement 
My first and foremost thanks go to Prof.Mrs.N.Ratnayake and Dr.Kodikara, Deparment 
of Civil Engineering for granting me permission and creating this opportunity to follow 
the Master of Environmental Management course in University of Moratuwa. 
I would like to pay my heartfelt gratitude to Prof.S.S.L.Hettiarachchi without whose 
supervision and guidance, this endeavor would have not been a reality. I would like to 
pay my special gratitude to Dr.S.P.Samarawickrema for the guidance extended to me. My 
special thanks go to Dr.R.Samaranayake of Coast Conservation Department for providing 
me the Draft Coastal Zone Management Plan. 
I wish to extend my gratitude to Mr.S.Pathinather, Dr (Mrs.) P.Hettiarachchi and 
Dr.S.S.Wickremasooriya, Prof.A.K.W.Jayawardena, and Ms.Buddika Gunawardena for 
the encouragement and support given to me to make this research a success. 
I am thankful to full time Research Students; Ms.Manori Fernando, Ms.Thushari 
Thilekeratne, Mr.Thisara Welhena, Mr.Gayan Wijesekera, Mrs.Rekha Mallawarachchi 
and all the part time post graduate students who followed the Post Graduate Diploma in 
Environmental Engineeering and Management with me. 
My special thanks go to staffs of Lanka Hydraulic Institute, Coast Conservation 
Department and the library of University of Moratuwa for providing me with necessary 
data and documents required for the research. 
A b s t r a c t 
Sri Lanka has a fully operative Coastal Zone Management Plan (CZMP), which is 
periodically updated. The 2003 Coastal Zone Management Plan has followed and built 
upon the 1997 Coastal Zone Management Plan with additional components introduced to 
address the current requirements. However, some areas have not been addressed in great 
detail even in CZMP 2003. The Costal Erosion Management Plan does not include green 
engineering measures and the Conservation Plan does not include the Estuary and Lagoon 
management in depth .It has been emphasized that a national recommendation regarding 
policy design is inappropriate and site specific policy design is required. Fisheries 
concerns, which were not addressed earlier, are included in CZMP 2003. Extending the 
SAM process to all areas requiring site specific and integrated sustainable resource 
management are key objectives in the CZMP 2003. 
Sea level rise is one of the more certain responses to global warming and presents a major 
challenge to human kind. The average global sea level rise estimated by IPCC is at 31cm 
to 110cm by the year 2100 with a best estimate of 66cm. The land loss estimated using 
the simple drowning concept on the southwest coast is 6.0 to 11.5 km 2 when the low and 
high scenarios of sea level rise are concerned respectively. In assessing the vulnerability 
to sea level rise the new techniques such as GIS, Remote Sensing and Aerial Video Tape 
assisted analysis should be used. Brunn Rule is another very widely used technique to 
assess the land loss. It has been estimated that the Coastline of Sri Lanka will recede by as 
much as 50 to 500m within the next century purely due to rise in sea level. Therefore, it is 
extremely important to pay attention to sea level rise in the future in the design, planning 
and implementation stages of coastal development, coastal protection and coastal 
management activities. 
The estuary management plans should be consistent with the tenets of total catchment 
management and ecologically sustainable development. It is important to realize that 
basic methods to understand the distribution of pollutants in estuaries can be a 
management tool and an aid in decision-making but nothing more. The recommended 
ratios of nutrients in estuaries are given by Redfield Ratios, however, a review of the 
literature indicates that optimum N: P ratio can vary between seven and eighty-seven. The 
greatest uncertainty with estuary nitrogen budgets concerns the contribution of 
atmospheric deposition. The principal management objective identified for Sri Lanka is 
conserving lagoons and estuaries to sustain and enhance environmental functions of and 
promote socio-economic activities connected with them. 
Three budgets were created for Negombo estuarine system using CABARET. The one 
layer 1 box budget indicates that the system is net heterotrophic and denitrification is 
dominant. The 2 box 1 layer budget indicates that the estuary is net heterotrophic in the 
wet season. In the dry season the system box 1 is net autotrophic while system box 2 is 
net heterotrophic. In 2 box 1 layer system too denitrification is dominant in the estuary 
both in wet and dry seasons. In the 3 box 1 layer model there are some regions in the 
estuary, which are autotrophic while rest of the regions, are heterotrophic. And in some 
region nitrogen fixation is the dominant process. Therefore, it is more suitable to use a 
IV 
multiple box model to understand the nutrient pollution problems and biogeochemical 
processes in the estuary. 
From the types of management programmes, which have been adopted globally. the use 
of an effective Integrated Coastal Zone Management Framework is most relevant to the 
management of Coastal zone of Sri Lanka. When compared to applications of 
management frameworks from different.countries, lega',.institutional and organizational 
requirements are not a serious problem in Sri Lanka. Community based approach which is 
already in use should be extended and management tools such as GIS and Vulnerability 
Assessments should be incorporated into the ICMF. 
V 
Table of Contents 
Acknowledgement 
Abstract IV 
Table of contents VI 
-List of Figures XII 
List of Tables XV 
List of Annexes XVII 
Abbreviations XVIII 
Chapter 1 Introduction 1 
Chapter 2 Review of Coastal Zone Management in Sri Lanka 
2.1 Status of Coastal Zone Management (CZM) Programs 2 
2.2 The 2003 Coastal Zone Management Plan (CZMP) 5 
2.3 Managing Coastal Erosion 6 
2.4 Conservation of Coastal Habitats 9 
2.5 Controlling Coastal Water Pollution 10 
2.6 Integrating Coastal Fisheries and Aquaculture 12 
2.7 Special Area Management 16 
Chapter 3 Sea Level Rise 
3.1. Sea Level Rise - Global Context 18 
3.2. Significance of the Coastal Zone of Sri Lanka 20 
3.3. Analysing the Impacts of Sea Level Rise 22 
3.4. Impacts on the Coastal Zone 25 
3.4.1 Inundation 25 
3.4.1.1 Coastal Settlements 26 
3.4.1.2 Coastal Wetlands 28 
3.4.2 Coastal Erosion 29 
3.4.3 Flooding and Storm Damage 32 
VI 
3.4.4 Quality of Surface and Groundwater 33 
3.4.4.1 Low lying Agriculture 34 
3.4.4.2 Fresh Water 35 
3.4.5 Fishery Industry 36 
3.4.6 Marine Ecosystems and Coral Reefs 36 
3.4.7 Sea Defense Structures and Breakwaters 37 
3.4.8 Near shore Infrastructure 38 
3.4.8.1 Near shore Land Based Infrastructure 38 
3.4.8.2 Near shore Land Reclamation 38 
3.4.9 Tourist Industry 39 
3.5 Coastal Impact Assessment -Vulnerability to the Accelerated Sea Level Rise 40 
3.5.1 Studies Recommended by the Coastal Zone Management Subgroup to 
Assess the Vulnerability to the Accelerated Sea Level Rise 40 
3.5.2 The Vulnerability Analysis Carried Out for UNCSP by Weerakkody 41 
3.5.3 GIS and Remote Sensing in Vulnerability Analysis 42 
3.5.4 Aerial Video-Tape Assisted Vulnerability Analysis 43 
3.5.5 Shoreline Retreat Distance Estimated from Brunn's Rule 44 
3.6 Adaptive Responses 47 
3.6.1 Categories of Adaptive Responses 47 
3.6.1.1 Retreat 47 
3.6.1.2 Accommodation 47 
3.6.1.3 Protection 48 
3.6.2 Adaptive Responses Used in Sri Lanka 49 
Chapter 4 Estuary and Lagoon Management 
4.1 Importance of Estuaries and Lagoons 50 
4.2 Physico-Chemical Processes in Estuaries and Lagoons 52 
4.2.1. Conservative Pollutants 53 
4.2.2. Non-conservative Pollutants 53 
4.2.3. Coupled Non-conservative Pollutants 55 
4.3 Role of Nutrients in Estuaries 56 
4.3.1 Nutrient Status _ 56 
4.3.1.1. Nutrients That are Limiting Factors for Estuarine 
Phytoplankton 57 
4.3.1.2 Regeneration of Nutrients (Cycling) 59 
a) Nitrogen Cycle in an Estuary 59 
b) Phosphorous Cycle in an Estuary 60 
c) Gradients of Nutrients and Estuary Mixing 60 
d) Effects of Nutrient Over-Enrichment (Eutrophication) 61 
4.3.1.3. Chi a as an integrated, surrogate measure of nutrient status 61 
4.3.1.4. Importance of DO and Water Clarity 62 
4.3.2 Sources of Nutrient Inputs to Estuaries and Coastal waters 64 
4.3.2.1 Wastewater and Non point Source Inputs 65 
4.3.2.2. Disturbance, Non point Nutrient Fluxes, and Baselines for nutrient 
exports from pristine systems 65 
4.3.2.3 Agriculture and Non point Source Nutrient Pollution 66 
(a) Export of phosphorous from Agricultural Systems 66 
(b) Export of Nitrogen from Agricultural Systems 66 
4.3.2.4 Fate of nitrogen in Atmospheric Deposition 66 
4.3.2.5 Processing of Nitrogen and Phosphorous in Wetlands, Streams and 
Rivers 66 
4.3.3 Nutrient Fluxes to the Coast 67 
4.3.3.1 Nutrient Budgets for Specific Estuaries and Coastal Waters 67 
4.3.3.2 Oceanic Waters as a Nutrient Source to Estuaries 68 
4.4 Estuary & Lagoon Management in Sri Lanka 69 
4.4.1 Human Related Causes 69 
4.4.2 Natural Causes 70 
4.5 Specific Objectives of an Estuary Management Plan 71 
4.5.1 General Objectives 71 
4.5.2 The Estuary Management Process 72 
4.6 Management Objectives 73 
4.6.1 Policies and Planning 73 
VIII 
• 
4.6.2 Future Targets of the Catchment Management Plan 74 
4.6.2.1 Implications for Achieving Source Reductions 74 
4.6.2.2 Source Reduction and Control 75 
4.6.2.3 Implementing Remedial Measures 75 
4.6.2.4 Urban sources 76 
4.6.2.5 Other Mitigation Options 78 
4.6.3 Conservation 79 
4.6.4 Research and Development 80 
4.6.5 Trade and Industry 81 
4.6.6 Environmental Quality 81 
4.6.7 Water Quality Goals 82 
4.6.7.1 Establishing Criteria and Standards 82 
4.6.7.2 Current Criteria and Standards 83 
4.6.7.3 TDML Approach 83 
4.6.7.4 The Flushing Time 84 
4.7 Management Objectives, Policies and Actions Identified for Sri Lanka 85 
Chapter 5 Estuarine Water Quality Models 
5.1 The Need For Estuarine Water Quality Models 88 
5.2 Land Ocean Interaction In The Coastal Zone (LOICZ) Project 88 
5.3 LOICZ Biogeochemical Budgeting Procedure 90 
5.3.1 Water and Salt Budget 91 
5.3.2Nutrient Budgets 92 
5.4 Computer Assisted Budget Analysis for Research, Education, and Training 94 
5.5 Stoichiometric Analysis" of the Fluxes 95 
5.5.1 Organic Metabolism and "Net Ecosystem Metabolism" 95 
5.5.2 Phosphorous Carbon Stoichiometry 96 
5.5.3 Nonconservative Phosphorus Flux and Net Ecosystem Metabolism 97 
5.5.4 Nitrogen Metabolism and Net Nitrogen Fixation Minus 
Denitrification 99 
IX 
% 
5.5.5 Net Sulfate Reduction, Net CaC0 3 Precipitation, and C 0 2 Gas Flux 100 
5.6 Budget for Negombo Estuarine System 103 
5.6.1 River Discharge, Precipitation and Evaporation Data 108 
5.6.2 Salinity, DIP and DIN 108 
5.6.2.1 Salt concentrations for One Box Scenario 109 
5.6.2.2 DIN and DIP for One Box Scenario 110 
I 5.6.2.3Salt concentrations for Two Box Scenario 111 
5.6.2.4 DIN and DIP for Two Box Scenario 112 
5.6.2.5 Salt concentrations for Three Box Scenario 113 
5.6.2.6 DIN and DIP for Three Box Scenario 115 
5.6.3 Budgets For Negombo Lagoon Using Cabaret 117 
5.6.3.1 Budget Analysis 1-1 BOX 1 LAYER 117 
(a) Water and Salt Balances 117 
(i) Salt & Water Budget for Dry Season 117 
(ii) Salt & Water Budget for Wet Season 119 
(b) Nonconservative Dissolved Inorganic P and N Fluxes 121 
5.3.6.2 Budget Analysis 2-2 BOX 1 LAYER 127 
(a) Water and Salt Balances 127 
(i) Salt & Water Budget for Dry Season 127 
^ (ii) Salt & Water Budget for Wet Season 128 
(b) Nonconservative Dissolved Inorganic P and N Fluxes 131 
5.6.3.3 Budget Analysis 3-3 BOX 1 LAYER 137 
(a) Water and Salt Balances 137 
(ii) Salt & Water Budget for Dry Season 137 
(ii) Salt & Water Budget for Wet Season 138 
(b) Nonconservative Dissolved Inorganic P and N Fluxes 140 
5.6.3.4 Conclusion 146 
Chapter 6 Integrated Coastal Zone Management Framework 
6.1 The Need for Management Framework 147 
6.2 Types of Management Frameworks 148 
6.3 Integrated Coastal Zone Managmeent Framework and its Application to 
% Sri Lanka 153 
6.4 Applications of Management Frameworks from Different Countries 157 
6.4.1 Coastal Management in Nile Delta of Egypt 157 
6.4.2 Coastal Management in Poland 158 
6.4.3 Coastal Management in Vietnam 159 
6.4.3.1 Application of Management Frameworks to Vietnam 
X 
Coastal zone 
6.4.3.2 ICZM Case Study - Thua Thien Hue 
6.4 .4 Coastal Zone Management in Mozambique 
6.4.5 Coastal Management in Pacific Islands 
6.5 Concluding Remarks on the applications o f ICZM Framework 
Chapter 7 Conclusions and Recommendations 
References 
XI 
List of Figures 
Figure 2.1 Vetiver Grass Systems Used in Sri Lanka to Prevent Soil Erosion in Tea 
Estates 
Figure 2.2 Vetiver Grass Products in Royal-Development Projects Board (Thailand) 
Figure 3.1 Global Sea Level Rise, 1985 to 2100 (IPCC 1990) 
Figure 3.2 The Maritime Zones 
Figure 3.3 Coastal Zone Definition , Coast Conservation Act 
Figure 3.4 Devolution of Marsh as Sea Rises. 
Figure 3.5 Increasing Salinity Due to Sea Level Rise 
Figure 3.6 Impact of Sea Level Rise on Island Water Table. 
Figure 3.7 The Brunn Rule 
Figure 3.8 Overwash: Natural Response of Undeveloped Barrier Islands to Sea Level 
Rise 
Figure 4.1 Behavior of Conservative and Non-Conservative Pollutants 
Figure 4.2 Behavior of a Coupled Non-Conservative Pollutant 
Figure 4.3 Nitrogen Cycle in an Estuary 
Figure 4.4 Conceptual Model Illustrating Oxygen Depletion and Nutrient 
Regeneration in Bottom Waters (and Sediments) in the Stratified Portion 
of an Estuary e.g. Where Saline Water Underlies Riverine Water. 
Figure 5.1 Budget for Any Material 
Figure 5.2 Water Budget 
Figure 5.3 Salt Budget 
Figure 5.4 Generalized Budget for Any Material, Y, Within a Coastal Marine 
System. 
Figure 5.5 Budget for Nutrients 
XII 
# 
Figure 5.6 Generalized Diagram Illustrating C, N, and P Cycling Through the 
Organic Metabolic Pathways. 
Figure 5.7 Diagram Illustrating How the Dissolved Inorganic Content and the Total 
Alkalinity of Seawater are Each Altered. 
Figure 5 S. .. Muthurajawela Marsh - Negombo Estuary 
Figure 5.9 Distribution of Locations of Water Quality Sampling for the One Box 
Scenario 
Figure 5.10 Distribution of Locations of Water Quality Sampling for the Two Box 
Scenario 
Figure 5.11 Distribution of Locations of Water Quality Sampling for the Three Box 
Scenario 
Figure 5.12 Water and Salt Balances for Dry Season 1 Box 1 Layer Scenario 
Figure 5.13 Water and Salt Balances for Wet Season 1 Box 1 Layer Scenario 
Figure 5.14 Nitrogen Balance for Dry Season 1 Box 1 Layer Scenario 
Figure 5.15 Nitrogen Balance for Wet Season 1 Box 1 Layer Scenario 
Figure 5.16 Phosphorous Balance for Dry Season 1 Box 1 Layer Scenario 
Figure 5.17 Phosphorous Balance for Wet Season 1 Box 1 Layer Scenario 
Figure 5.18 Water and Salt Balances for Dry Season 2 Box 1 Layer Scenario 
Figure 5.19 Water and Salt Balances for Wet Season 2 Box 1 Layer Scenario 
Figure 5.20 Nitrogen Balance for Dry Season 2 Box 1 Layer Scenario 
Figure 5.21 Nitrogen Balance for Wet Season 2 Box 1 Layer Scenario 
Figure 5.22 Phosphorous Balance for Dry Season 2 Box I Layer Scenario 
Figure 5.23 Phosphorous Balance for Wet Season 2 Box 1 Layer Scenario 
Figure 5.24 Water and Salt Balances for Dry Season 3 Box 1 Layer Scenario 
Figure 5.25 Water and Salt Balances for Wet Season 3 Box 1 Layer Scenario 
Figure 5.26 Nitrogen Balance for Dry Season 3 Box I Layer Scenario 
XIII 
Figure 5.27 Nitrogen Balance for Wet Season 3 Box 1 Layer Scenario 
Figure 5.28 Phosphorous Balance for Dry Season 3 Box 1 Layer Scenario 
Figure 5.29 Phosphorous Balance for Wet Season 3 Box 1 Layer Scenario 
XIV 
List of Tables 
Table 3.1 Scenarios of the Accelerated Sea Level Rise for Sri Lanka 
Table 3.2 Land Loss of the Southwest Coast of Sri Lanka 
Table 3.3 Estimated Areas of Inundation Around the Lowlands Adjacent to 
Marshlands, Lagoons and Estuaries of the Southwest Coast of Sri Lanka 
Table 3.4 The Major Categories and Types of Land Use of the Southwest Coast of 
Sri Lanka (km encountered under each type of land use) 
Table 3.5 Erosion Rates Resulting from an Increase of Sea Level Based on 'Brunn 
Rule' 
Table 5.1 Average Discharge, Precipitation and Evaporation for both Dry & Wet 
seasons 
Table 5.2 Outer Box (Sea) Salt Concentrations - One Box Scenario 
Table 5.3 System Box Salt Concentrations - One Box Scenario 
Table 5.4 Freshwater (River) Salt Concentrations- One Box Scenario 
Table 5.5 DIN and DIP Outside the System (Sea) at Location 1 - One Box Scenario 
Table 5.6 DIN and DIP Inside the System Box (considering locations 1A, 2, 2A, 2B, 
3, 4,5,6,6A, 7) - One Box Scenario 
Table 5.7 DIN and DIP in Freshwater Discharge (Considering Locations 8,8A, 9, 
9A, 10, 10A) - One Box Scenario 
Table 5.8 Salt Concentrations in the Outer Box (Sea) - Two Box Scenario 
Table 5.9 Salt Concentration Inside the System Box 2 (locations 1A, 2, 2A, 3, 4) -
Two Box Scenario 
Table 5.10 Salt Concentration Inside the System Box 1 (considering locations 5, 6,6A, 
7) - Two Box Scenario 
Table 5.11 Salt Concentrations in the Fresh Water Discharge (Considering locations 
8, 8A, 9, 9A, 10, 10A) - Two Box Scenario 
Table 5.12 DIN and DIP Outside the System (sea) at Location 1 - Two Box Scenario 
XV 
Table 5.13 DIN and DIP Inside the System Box 2 (Considering locations 1A, 2, 2A, 
3, 4) - Two Box Scenario 
Table 5.14 DIN & DIP Inside the System Box 1 (Considering locations 5, 6, 6A &7) -
Two Box Scenario 
Table 5.15 DIN and DIP in the Freshwater Discharge (Considering locations 8, 8A, 9, 
9A, 10, 10A) - Two Box Scenario 
Table 5.16 Salt Concentration in the Outer Box (Ocean) 
Table 5.17 Salt Concentration in System Box 3 (Considering Locations 1 A, 2, 2A, 3, 
4) ' 
Table 5.18 Salt Concentration in System Box 2 (Considering Locations 5 & 6) 
Table 5.19 Salt Concentration in System Box 1 (Considering Locations 6A & 7 ) 
Table 5.20 Salt Concentration in the Freshwater Discharge (Considering points 8, 8A, 
9, 9A, 10, 10A) 
Table 5.21 DIN and DIP Outside the System (Ocean) at Location 1 
Table 5.22 DIN and DIP in System Box 3(Considering, Locations 1 A, 2, 2A, 3, 4) 
Table 5.23 DIN and DIP Inside the System Box 2, (Considering Locations 5 and 6) 
Table 5.24 DIN & DIP Inside the System Box 1 (considering Locations 6A and 7) 
Table 5.25 DIN and DIP in Freshwater Discharge (Considering Locations 8, 8A, 9, 
9A, 10, 10A) 
Table 4.26 Nonconservative Dissolved Inorganic P and N Fluxes in Negombo 
Lagoon Considering a s a 1 Box 1 Layer System. 
Table 5.27 Non conservative Dissolved Inorganic P and N Fluxes in Negombo 
Lagoon Considering as a 2 Box 1 Layer System. 
Table 5.28 Nonconservative Dissolved Inorganic P and N Fluxes in Negombo 
Lagoon Considering as a Three Box 1 Layer system 
Table 6.1 Significance of Main Variables (Coastal Issues and Parameters) 
XVI 
List of Annexes 
Annex Al Proposed Ambient Water Quality Standards for Inland Waters 
Annex A2 Coastal Water Quality Standards 
Annex A3 Water Quality of Negombo Lagoon Study 1 
Annex A4 Water Quality of Negombo Lagoon Study 2 
XVII 
A b b r e v a t i o n s 
ADB 
ANZECC 
APC 
AVA 
BAU 
BMP 
BOD 
CABARET 
CCA 
CCAC 
CCD 
CEA 
Chi a 
COD 
CRM 
CRMP 
CZM 
CZMP 
CZMS 
DFAR 
DIC 
- Asian Development Bank ADB 
- Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation 
Council 
- Area of Particular Concern 
- Aerial Video-tape Assisted vulnerability analysis 
- Business as Usual 
- Best Management Practices 
- Biochemical Oxygen Demand 
- Computer Assisted Budget Analysis for Research, Education, and 
Training 
- Coast Conservation Act 
- Coast Conservation Advisory Council 
- Coast Conservation Department 
- Central Environmental Authority 
- Chlorophyll a' 
- Chemical Oxygen Demand 
- Coastal Resources Management 
- Coastal Resources Management Project 
- Coastal Zone Management 
- Coastal Zone Management Plan 
- Coastal Zone Management Strategy 
- Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources 
- Dissolved Inorganic Carbon 
XVIII 
DIN 
DIP 
DO 
DON 
DOP 
DRP 
EEZ 
EIA 
EPA 
ESID 
FAO 
GIS 
ICZM 
ICZMF 
IGBP 
IPCC 
IRMP 
IUCN 
LHI 
LOICZ 
MFARD 
MHWS 
MICOA 
- Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen 
- Dissolved Inorganic Phosphorous 
- Dissolved Oxygen 
-Dissolved Organic Nitrogen 
-Dissolved Organic Phosphorous 
-Dissolved Reactive Phosphorous 
- Exclusive Economic Zone 
- Environmental Impact Assessment 
- Environmental Protection Agency 
- Ecologically Sustainable Industrial Development 
- Food and Agricultural Organization 
- Geographic Information System 
- Integrated Coastal Zone Management 
- Integrated Coastal Zone Management Framework 
- International Geosphere- Biosphere Program 
- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 
- Integrated Resource Management Project 
- International Union for Conservation of Nature 
- Lanka Hydraulic Institute 
- Land Ocean Interaction in the Coastal Zone 
- Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Development 
- Mean High Water Spring Tide level 
-Ministry for the Coordination of Environmental Affairs 
XIX 
- National Aquatic Research Agency 
-National Aquaculture Development Agency 
- National Environmental Act 
- Net Ecosystem Metabolism - -
- Net Ecosystem Productivity 
- Non Governmental Organization 
- Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation 
- Photosynthetically Active Radiation 
- ParticulatePhosporous 
- Special Area Management 
- Special Area Management Plan 
- Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment 
Small Island Developing States 
Sea Level Rise 
Sites of Special Scientific Interests 
South West 
Total Alkalinity 
Total Maximum Daily Load 
Total Nitrogen 
Total Phosphorous 
Terms of Reference 
Urban Development Authority 
United Nations 
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development 
United Nations Committee to Stabilize the Population 
UNFCC - United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 
UNEP - United Nations Environmental Program 
US - United States 
WMO - World Meteorological Organization 
XXI