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The appreciation of landforms 
With special reference to Sri Lanka
M.Sc Dissertation
University of Moratuwa
103410
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1 1 NOV 2011
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C.P.B Liyanage 
Landscape Unit 
Department of Architecture 
University of Moratuwa
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November 2011
103410
Dissertation 2011 - MSc in Landscape Design
The Appreciation of Landforms; with special reference to Sri Lanka
CONTENTS
Page
Declaration
Acknowledgements
Abstract
ii
iii
List of Illustrations iv
INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER ONE:
Overview of Landforms as a core element in landscape
1.1 Geology, Geo-morphology and Landforms
1.2 Processes of forming landforms
1.3 Types and characteristic features of Landforms
1.4 Geology and topographical uniqueness in Sri Lanka
CHAPTER TWO:
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Key aspects of experiencing and appreciating landforms
2.1 The nature of the human mind 21
2.2 Sense of a place and spirit of a place
2.3 Spatial Volumes, visual characteristics and integration of 
Landforms
22
24
2.4 The other modifiers towards appreciating landforms 30
CHAPTER THREE:
The appreciation and experiencing landforms in Sri Lankan 
landscapes
3.1 Prelude to the analysis
3.2 Appreciation of landforms in the Sri Lankan context
31
Integration of landforms for the strengthening of a particular 
purpose or an inherent character
Landform as symbolic or sculptural elements in landscape
31
45
Landforms and effects of climatic facts 49
Integrating landforms with natural ecology 52
Flat terrains as unique landforms 56
CHAPTER FOUR:
Discussion and Concluding Remarks 58
List of References 62
Appendix-1 64
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this dissertation represents my own work, except where due 
acknowledgement is made. It has not been previously included in a thesis, 
dissertation or report submitted to this university or any other institution for any 
degree, diploma or other qualification.
Liyanage C.P.B. 
M.Sc - Landscape Design 
Faculty of Architecture 
Department of Architecture 
University of Moratuwa 
November, 2011
rwarded by:
Prof. Shiranee Balasuriya 
Supervisor - M.Sc Dissertations 
Landscape Unit 
Faculty of Architecture 
Department of Architecture 
University of Moratuwa 
November, 2011
1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study owes much, to the assistance and guidance given by all the following, 
whom I wish to extend my gratitude.
First of all I wish to acknowledge Archt. Prof. Mrs. Shirani Balasuriya and 
Land: Archt. Susira Udalamatta for their unique inspirations as the supervisors of this 
dissertation.
Secondly, my earnest thankfulness to Dr. John Byrom for his valuable remarks and 
guidance given at every stages of the study.
I gratefully acknowledge Archt. Shereen Amendra and Mrs. Prabhani Rajapakse 
(Earth Resorces Engineering Department-University of Moratuwa) for their necessary 
guidance and support.
My special thanks to Archt. Mrs. Vasantha De Silva at the State Engineering 
Corporation of Sri Lanka for the valuable support given to carry out the study.
This project will not be successful if the helpful and kind people in all the following 
village settlements at Rambukoluwa, Walpolamulla and Rathninda at Knuckles 
Range, and Thanjanthanna, Kalthota, Diyavinna at Balangoda region, Soragune at 
Haldummulla, Non-Perial Estate at Balangoda, Rakkitha Kanda at Ella, Poonagala 
Estate at Bandarawela, Dikella Kanda at Udamaliboda had not helped me by 
providing their valuable information that are not in books, accommodations, way 
finding, parking and sometimes protection.
I should thank to Thilina, Lalantha, Amila, Mohan, Vipula, Daminda, Gihan, Nalaka, 
Sumudu, Dilan, Champika, Nadun, Bandara and Nuwan who helped me out in many 
ways specially for participating for the hard journeys with me and for being with me 
supporting in every possible way.
Last but not least, I wish to thank my parents, my sister, my dearest wife for their 
patient, encouragement and for the help they gave me in every possible way to make 
this dissertation a success.
ii
Dissertation 2011 - MSc in Landscape Design
The Appreciation of Land for ms; with special reference to Sri Lanka
ABSTRACT
Geology has profoundly influenced the society, civilizations and the cultural diversity 
of the world and the role of geology is unique in shaping human history as well. 
Besides that, Geology has pervaded everyday life and is a part of many aspects of 
human experience, including traditions such as the arts and literature.
Society requires a basic understanding of geology not only as a science, but also as 
an ‘art’, in being significant part of the environment experienced and appreciated by 
human beings. If the Earth's environment is to be treated as it ought to be, a better 
understanding of the various natural, physical, chemical, biological and geological 
processes which have left their mark on the Earth's surface is necessary. These 
marks are still affecting humankind and will continue to influence their future.
Many different psychological approaches focus on the psychological benefits of 
nature experiences which are more advantageous and strongly influence human 
perception. The contributions of geology and more importantly geomorphology are of 
great importance for this backdrop as space definers in landscape.
This study will attempt to emphasize the essence of geomorphological features which 
exist in Nature, focusing to capture the unique space-making attributes integrated 
with those features and more importantly, something beyond a mere view. i
Keywords
Landforms, Spatial Qualities, Visual Attributes, Human Perception, Emotions, 
Designed Landscapes
iii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
01 The visual pleasure of nature in landscape 
(Source: www.lakdasun.com)
Geomorphology - The face of the earth 
(Source: http://pics.tech4leaming.com)
Integration of landforms in different spaces 
(Source: http://www.festrvalzoo.com/)
The Structure of the earth
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology)
A Large wetland in South America is dominated by fluvial 
processes
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GeomorphoIogy)
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06 Wind-eroded alcove near Moab, Utah 
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorphology)
A mass wasting at Palo Duro Canyon, Texas 
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorphology)
Features of a glacial landscape
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomorphology)
Three types of plate boundaries 
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_tectonics)
The Himalayan range
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayas)
Geomorphology of the Himalayan range 
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayas)
Volcanic eruptions; forming unique landforms 
(Source: http://search.babylon.com)
A Gulch landform at Haputhale - Sri Lanka 
(Source: By the Author)
Sigiriya - A Butte landform 
(Source: By the Author)
Manigala Cliff at Knuckles range - Sri Lanka 
(Source: By the Author)
Lakegala Mountain at Knuckles range - Sri Lanka 
(Source: www.lakdasun.org)
Valley at Ella- Sri Lanka 
(Source: www.lakdasun.org)
View of the river mouth of Kalu Ganga at Kaluthara - Sri Lanka 
(Source: http:// blog.travelpod.com)
A beach at Benthota - Sri Lanka 
(Source: http:// blog.travelpod.com)
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20 A beach at Benthota - Sri Lanka 
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floodplain)
Landslide site at Koslanda - Sri Lanka 
(Source: http://www.geoIocation.ws)
A well known Spit landform: Adam’s Bridge - Sri Lanka
(Source: http://www.search.com)
A Tombolo landform: Giragala at Mirissa - Sri Lanka 
(Source: http://www.flickr.com)
A well known escarpment: World’s End- Sri Lanka 
(Source: http://www.flickr.com)
View of the Horton Plains Plateau from Haputhale- Sri Lanka 
(Source: http://www.travelphotogallery.net)
View of Knuckles Massif - Sri Lanka 
(Source: http://www.travelphotogallery.net)
Geological location of the Island of Sri Lanka 
(Source: http://movingimages.wordpress.com)
Topographical setting of Sri Lanka
(Source: http://photojoumal.jpl.nasa.gov/jpeg/PlA06670.jpg)
Geological map of Sri Lanka 
(Source: http://www.geo.shimane-u.ac.jp)
The three peneplains of Sri Lanka 
(Source: Page: 51, P.G. Cooray)
Perception of human beings 
(Source: http://www.flickr.com)
The senses of human beings
(Source: http://cultura.blogosfere.it/images/5%20senses.jpg)
A ‘Place’ in the nature with ‘feelings’
(Source: http://beautyoflanka.blogspot.com)
Sri Paada’ mountain in Sri Lanka - A landform with a strong 
‘sense of place’
(Source: http://www.jayholidays.com)
Spatial volume and the degree of vertical enclosures 
(Source: Simonds, John Ormsbee, 1983:136)
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Spatial volume with the quality of Tension 
(Source: Simonds, John Ormsbee, 1983:137)
Landforms contribute to create tensions 
(Source: By the Author)
Spatial volume with the quality of Relaxation 
(Source: Simonds, John Ormsbee, 1983:137)
Landforms contribute to create volumes of relaxing 
(Source: www.flickr.com)
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Spatial volume with the quality of Fright 
(Source: Simonds, John Ormsbee, 1983:138)
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41 Landforms are associated to generate fright qualities 
(Source: http://aroundtheworld-earth.blogspot.com)
Spatial volume with the quality of Gaiety 
(Source: Simonds, John Ormsbee, 1983:138)
Spatial volume with the quality of Contemplation 
(Source: Simonds, John Ormsbee, 1983:138)
Landforms are associated to generate Contemplation 
(Source: http://www.energytherapyhealing.com)
Landforms contribute to create volumes of spiritual awe 
(Source: www.flickr.com)
Spatial volume with dynamic quality 
(Source: Simonds, John Ormsbee, 1983:139)
A dynamic space formed by Landforms 
(Source: www.flickr.com)
Natural modifiers in landscape associate with landforms; Mist, 
Clouds, Sun Light, Vegetation patterns, Water features and 
natural textures 
(Source: By the Author)
Modulating a view in different ways 
(Source: Simonds, John Ormsbee, 1983: 175)
Making vistas by enframed segments of a view 
(Source: Simonds, John Ormsbee, 1983: 177)
‘Sri Paada’ mountain in Sri Lanka - A landform with a strong 
integration of socio-cultural background of the society 
(Source: http://picasaweb.google.com)
The Tiger's Nest Monastery in Bhutan - A very good example of 
integrating landforms and architecture 
(Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org)
Overall landscape of Horton Plains National Park 
(Source: http://www.panoramio.com
Location of Horton Plains National Park 
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org)
World's End' Escarpment - The landform of major attraction 
(Source: http:// www.panoramio.com)
Experiencing the escarpment with a hint of risk or a danger 
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org)
“V” shaped valley formed by the landforms that enframed the
view of the distance
(Source: http:// www.panoramio.com)
Diversity of the landforms of the plain and feeling of the ‘edge’ at 
the distance which generating tensions 
(Source: http:// www.panoramio.com)
The open vastness of the landforms and water cascades 
(Source: http:// www.panoramio.com)
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60 Continuous view of the escarpment edge at the distance 
(Source: By the Author)
View of the deep valley in different elevations 
(Source: By the Author)
Natural setting of the landforms and water cascades 
strengthening the appreciation 
(Source: By the Author)
View of the Knuckles mountain range 
(Source: www.panoramio.com)
Location of Knuckles range 
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org)
View of the winding road through Knuckles range 
(Source: By the Author)
Diversity of Landforms in the Knuckles range 
(Source: By the Author)
View of the landforms from Corbett’s Gap 
(Source: http://flickr.com)
Appreciation of the Mini World’s End Escarpment as a unique 
recreational space with a glimpse of adventure and risk 
(Source: By the Author)
Diversity of landforms can be experience in one journey from a 
moving object 
(Source: By the Author)
Human involvement to shaping or fashioning landforms 
(Source: By the Author)
View of Sri Pada Mountain and the sacred footprint 
(Source: http://naturalsigiriya.blogspot.com)
View of ‘Lihini hela’ cleeve with a unique sound reflection 
(Source: http://flickr.com)
View of ‘Dharamaraja Gala’ Rock 
(Source: http://flickr.com)
Stairway of ‘Maha Giri Dambaya’ escarpment 
(Source: By the Author)
Stairway of ‘Ahas Gawwa’
(Source: By the Author)
Approach to \Kuragala'
(Source: By the Author)
Archeological and religious remains of 'Kuragala’
(Source: By the Author)
View of the lowest peneplain of Sri Lanka form the top of 
1Kuragala'
(Source: http://flickr.com)
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79 View of Mihinthale and the location based on dominating 
landforms
(Source: http://flickr.com)
Integrating landforms for the spiritual and contemplative spaces 
at Budugala 
(Source: By the Author)
Integrating landforms for the spiritual and contemplative spaces 
at Maligathanna 
(Source: By the Author)
Location of the Hindu Kovil at Punagala, Bandarawela 
(Source: By the Author)
The rock of Sigiriya - A unique landform that providing 
backdrop for the whole context 
(Source: http://livingheritage.org)
All the man-made elements were integrated with landforms and 
their inherent features 
(Source: By the Author)
Integration of man-made elements and natural landforms 
generating regal quality 
(Source: http://www.bing.com)
Dambulla rock temple - A unique religious place backdrop with 
a huge rock
(Source: http://www.picasaweb.google.com)
Yapahuwa Fortress - A landfrom backdrop for the purpose of 
defense
(Source: http://www.mysrilankahoIidays.com)
View of Pilikuththuwa Rajamaha Viharaya 
(Source: http://picasaweb.google.com)
View of architectural elements of Kaludiya Pokuna
(Source: By the Author)
Kandalama Hotel 
designed using a natural landform as a backdrop 
(Source: http://picasaweb.google.com)
View of Thoppigala’ mountain 
(Source: http://picasaweb.google.com)
View of ‘Bathalegala’ mountain as a dominating landform by its 
shape within the context 
(Source: http://www.lakdasun.lk)
View of ‘Dethanagala’ mountain 
(Source: http://www.flickr.lk)
View of ‘Pettigala' mountain 
(Source: http://www.flickr.lk)
View of'Govinda Held’ mountain 
(Source: http://www.flickr.lk)
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90 a unique architectural element that
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96 View of ‘Yahangala' mountain 
(Source: http://www.flickr.lk)
View of ‘Kuragala' mountain which has a shape of a ship 
(Source: http://www.flickr.lk)
View of ‘Ga/a Pita gala’ at Buttala - Katharagama Road 
(Source: http://www.flickr.lk)
View of an elephant shape rock at Nuwara Eliya Road 
(Source: http://www.flickr.lk)
Change of the setting of the World’s End Escarpment due to the 
mist and clouds 
(Source: http://www.flickr.lk)
Change of the spatial quality of the Horton plains due to the mist 
(Source: http://www.flickr.lk)
Different visual effects of the Word’s End escarpment due to 
seasonal changes 
(Source: http://www.flickr.lk)
Different visual effects and colors of the Horton Plains in various
time periods of the day
(Source: http://www.picasaweb.google.com)
View of the ‘Saptha Kanya’ Mounatin Range 
(Source: http://www.picasaweb.google.com)
View of the Knuckles Range - Covered by a veil of mist 
(Source: http://www.lakdasun.lk)
Effects of mist, clouds and natural light and shadows of Sri
Pada Mountain
(Source: http://www.lakdasun.lk)
Reflection of still water integrated with the landform at ‘Kaludiya 
Pokuna1 (Black water pool) at Mihinthale 
(Source: http://www.lakdasun.lk)
View of ‘Naga Pokuna’ at Mihinthale 
(Source: http://www.lakdasun.lk)
View of ‘Duwili Ella’ waterfall at Kalthota 
(Source: By the Author)
View of ‘Hirikatu Oya Ella’ waterfall at Balangoda 
(Source: By the Author)
Change of the spatial qualities of the overall context associated 
with the landform and the power of the water cascade 
(Source: By the Author)
Spatial quality generated by tidal changes 
(Source: By the Author)
Change of the spatial qualities due to the power of water - 
'Hummanaya’ (Blow Hole) at Dickwella 
(Source: By the Author)
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114 Association of Tea plantations for landforms at Thalawakale 
(Source: By the Author)
Association of paddy cultivations for landforms at Atanwala 
Village - Matale 
(Source: By the Author)
Visual effects of Horton Plains due to the patterns and colors of 
the vegetation 
(Source: By the Author)
Visual effects of Knuckles Range due to the patterns and colors
of the vegetation
(Source: http://www.lakdasun.lk)
Forms of series of trees change the visual qualities of the 
landform
(Source: By the Author)
Forms of a singular tree change the visual qualities of a 
landform
(Source: By the Author)
Harsh quality of the flat terrain at Hambanthota 
(Source: http://www.lakdasun.lk)
View of the flat terrain at Anuradhapura with paddy fields 
(Source: http://www.lakdasun.lk)
View of the flat terrain of ‘Ussangoda’
(Source: By the Author)
Dominating structures (Stupas) on the flat terrain at 
Anuradhapura region 
(Source: http://www.lakdasun.lk)
View of the original location and the designed landscape of 
Shire
(Source: http://www.tourism.net.nz)
View of the designed landscape of Shire with full of joy and 
delight
(Source: http://www.tourism.net.nz)
View of the Mount Ruapehu and the designed landscape of 
Mount Doom at Modor 
(Source: http://www.tourism.net.nz)
View of the designed landscapes of Argonath and Eregion Hills 
(Source: http://www.tourism.net.nz)
Designed landscape of‘Minas Tirith’
(Source: http://lotr.wikia.com)
Designed landscape of ‘Rivendeir generating a regal and 
majestic quality 
(Source: http://lotr.wikia.com)
View of the landforms of Zhangjiajie National Forest Park at 
China and designed illusionary sceneries of the film of ‘Avatar* 
(Source: http://confessionsofanikeholic.blogspot.com)
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