THE KEY CONSIDERATIONS TO ACHIEVE DESIGN 
EFFICIENCY FOR FUNCTIONAL USE OF DOMESTIC 
EARTHENWARE IN SRI LANKA 
 
 
 
 
 
W.M.N.D Ranasinghe 
 
09/8054 
 
 
 
Degree of Master of Philosophy 
 
 
 
Department of Integrated Design 
 
University of Moratuwa 
Sri Lanka 
 
September 2012 
THE KEY CONSIDERATIONS TO ACHIEVE DESIGN 
EFFICIENCY FOR FUNCTIONAL USE OF DOMESTIC 
EARTHENWARE IN SRI LANKA 
 
 
 
 
 
Wasala Mudiyanselage Niwanthika Dilshani Ranasinghe 
 
09/8054 
 
 
Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree 
Master of Philosophy 
 
 
Degree of Master of Philosophy 
 
Department of Integrated Design 
University of Moratuwa 
Sri Lanka 
 
September 2012 
 
I 
 
Declaration 
 
I declare that this is my own work and this thesis does not incorporate without acknowledgement 
any material previously submitted for a Degree or Diploma in any other University or institute of 
higher learning and to the best of my knowledge and belief it does not contain any material 
previously published or written by another person except where the acknowledgement is made in 
the text. 
 
Also, I hereby grant to University of Moratuwa the non-exclusive right to reproduce and 
distribute my thesis, in whole or in part in print, electronic or other medium. I retain the right to 
use this content in whole or part in future works (such as articles or books). 
 
 
 
Signature:         Date: 
 
 
 
 
The above candidate has carried out research for the MPhil Dissertation under my supervision. 
 
 
 
 
Signature of the supervisor:       Date: 
 
 
II 
 
Acknowledgements 
 
I feel it is my bounden duty to express my deep appreciation and gratitude to my supervisor, 
Senior Prof. Nimal de Silva for the valuable guidance and encouragement given to me at all 
stages of this research. I owe special thanks to my co-supervisor Prof. Harsha Munasinghe, 
Faculty of Architecture, for his valuable contributions which enabled me to carry out this study 
successfully.  
I would like to take this opportunity to thank, Dr. Sepani Senarathne, Director of postgraduate, 
Faculty of Architecture, Dr. Upendra Rajapaksha, senior lecturer, Dept. of Architecture and Mrs. 
Sunethra Weerasinghe, University of  Moratuwa for the cooperation and assistance extended to 
me to make this project a success. My sincere thanks are also due to Mr. AMS Attanayake 
Administrative & Technical coordinator, Faculty of Architecture, University of Moatuwa. 
I am indeed grateful to people in kandy and Colombo for providing all the valuable data for my 
research.  This research would never have been possible, without their support. I owe my thanks 
to the rural pottery manufacturers and their families too for their kind gesture. 
My heartfelt thanks go to my beloved amma, appachchi & sister for their moral support and 
encouragement. Last but not least, I should thank my husband and son who have been the   
enduring sources of inspiration throughout this study.  
Finally I would like to thank all those who helped me in numerous ways to make this project a 
success.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
III 
 
Abstract 
 
Sri Lanka is famous for ‘Clay Cooking Pots’ from the historical days. Earthenware clay cooking pots 
have been used in each and every household as the main cooking utensil. However with the time these 
clay products became less popular. It has been found that they have not paid proper attention and concern 
during the process of manufacturing. This has resulted low quality clay products which make people 
dissatisfied of them. Therefore, it is obvious that clay cooking pots should be given due recognition, as 
they possess many good qualities which are unique to them only. 
This study on ‘Clay Cooking Products’ reveals that these clay cooking utensils do not cater to the needs 
of present society, due to less design qualities. Although there are cooking utensils made out of other 
materials, they do not possess the qualities which belong only to the clay products. However it has been 
identified that people live in the present society are willing to use clay cooking pots, if they are up to 
standard with good design qualities which fulfill their needs.  
Design Elements and Design Principles are very important factors which play a vital role in producing 
clay products. Other important factors that have to be considered are Shape, Form, Texture, Value and 
Balance of the products. Design elements and design principles are very important as they contribute a lot 
to produce a good designer product. Questionnaire survey was carried out with a view to finding out the 
effectiveness of those factors on present clay cooking pots. Main attempt was to collect information 
regarding the orifice, belly and base of the specific product which has been used in the study. The 
earthenware cooking pot “Hattiya” and the lid was used as sample objects in this study. Questionnaire 
survey was carried out in selected urban areas in the country (Kandy & Colombo). The data was studied 
and analyzed through the Chi-Square testing method in order to find out the most important factor.   
According to the analysis of data, and other investigations it has now been found out that the specific clay 
cooking pot (“Hattiya”) which is in use presently has to be developed paying attention to the design 
development of the product. Through the data analysis it was proved that factors such as Shape, Form, 
Texture, Balance and Value are key considerations of making “Hattiya”. These factors are important to 
achieve design efficiency when product is functionally used. Those factors have to be considered 
according to the mentioned order and they are important to the other clay cooking pots as well, in the 
process of manufacturing them.  
 
Keywords : Functional, Efficiency, Design Element, Design Principles 
 
 
 
 
IV 
 
Table of Contents 
           Page 
Declaration of the Candidate & Supervisor ………………………………………….. I 
Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………………. II 
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………. III 
Table of Content ………………………………………………………………………... IV 
List of Figures …………………………………………………………………………... XI 
List of Tables ……………………………………………………………………………. XVIII 
List of Annexure  ……………………………………………………………………….. XX 
List of Abbreviations …………………………………………………………………… XXI 
 
Chapter One 
IMPORTANCE OF CERAMIC PRODUCTS  
0.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………… 01 
1.1 Identify ceramic as a valuable invention  …………………………... 01 
1.2 Problem Identification  ….……………………………………….. 05 
1.3       Problem Identification by Questionnaire Survey     ……………………. 07  
1.4        Importance of the study  ………………………………………….. 09 
1.5 Limitations  …………………………………………………………... 09 
1.6        Methodology  …………………………………………………………... 10 
1.7        Summary  …………………………………………………………… 11 
 
 
V 
 
Chapter Two 
DESIGN EFFICIENCY AND FUNCTIONAL USE OF CERAMIC 
PRODUCTS 
0.2 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………. 12 
2.1 Identify Designs, Design Efficiency and Product Functionality of 
 Clay Vessels  ……………………………………………………………. 12  
2.1.1 What is Design? ………………………………………………….. 13 
2.1.2 Identification of Design Efficiency ………………………………. 15 
2.1.3 Identification of Product Functionality …………………………... 17 
2.2 Product and Product Experience  ………………………………………........ 18 
2.3 Physical and Psychological Comfort of Design …………………………….. 22 
2.3.1 What is Physical Comfort? ……………………………………….. 22 
2.3.2 What is Psychological Comfort? …………………………………. 23 
2.3.3 The Effect of Physical and Psychological Comfort for  
Ceramic Design ………………………………………………………. 24 
 
2.4 Principles and Elements of Design ………………………………………….. 29 
2.5 Classification of Design Principles and Elements …………………………… 29 
2.6 Use of Design Principles and Elements in Ceramic Design ………………… 31 
2.6.1 Design Principles in Earthenware Ceramic Products ……............. 32 
2.6.1.1    The Role of the Proportion of Earthenware Products….. 32 
2.6.1.2    The Role of the Balance of Earthenware Products …….. 34 
 
  2.6.2 Design Elements in Earthenware Ceramic Products  .,……………. 36 
   2.6.2.1    The Role of the Shape of Earthenware  Product ……….... 36 
 
   2.6.2.2    The Role of the Form of Earthenware Products ……... 40 
2.6.2.3     The Role of the Texture of Earthenware Products ……... 42 
VI 
 
   2.6.2.4     The Role of the Value of Earthenware Products ……... 45 
  
 
 2.7 Structure of Clay Vessels  ………………………………………………… 46  
2.7.1 Structure of the Clay Pots and Its Importance ……………………. 52 
2.7.1.1          Orifice of the Vessel ……………………………….. 52 
2.7.1.2          Body of the Vessel …………………………………. 55 
2.7.1.3          Base of the Vessel ………………………………....... 56 
 
2.8 Summary ………………..………………………………………………. 58 
 
 
 
 Chapter Three 
CERAMIC VARIETIES AND IMPORTANCE OF EARTHENWARE 
CULINARY PRODUCTS 
 
3.0   Introduction  ………………………………………………………………….....  59  
3.1   Evolution of ceramic ware in Sri Lanka ……………………………………. 59 
3.2   About Earthenware Products ……………………………………………...... 64 
  
3.3   Variety of Earthenware Products and Product Usage ………………………. 67  
3.3.1 Domestic Products ………………………………………………... 67 
3.3.2 Architectural Products ……………………………………………. 68 
3.3.3 Ritual Products /Ecclesiastical Products ………………………….. 68 
3.4   Functional Aspects of Domestic Earthenware Products  ……………………. 68 
3.4.1 The purpose of Earthenware Processing Products ……………...… 69 
3.4.2 The purpose of Earthenware Transport Products ……………….… 71 
VII 
 
3.4.3 The purpose of Earthenware Storage Products ………………….... 73 
 
3.5   Basic Cooking Methods in Sri Lanka  …………………………………….. 75 
3.5.1 Boiling …………………………………………………………….. 76 
3.5.2 Steaming …………………………………………………………... 77 
3.5.3 Frying  …………………………………………………………...... 78 
3.5.4 Roasting …………………………………………………………… 79 
 
3.6   Identification of Earthenware Culinary Products ……………………………. 80 
3.6.1 Earthenware Culinary Products and it Function ………………….. 81 
3.6.2 Identification of Earthenware Cleaning and Washing Objects …… 82 
3.6.2.1 “Nembiliya” ………………………………………………. 82 
3.6.2.2 “Koraha”  ………………………………………………… 83 
3.6.2.3 “Adi Walada” …………………………………………….. 84 
 
3.6.3 Identification of Earthenware Auxiliary Objects …………………. 84 
 
3.6.3.1 “Karamudiya”/“Wahantharawa” ……………………..…. 84 
3.6.3.2 “Pittumudiya" ………………………………………..…… 85 
 
3.6.4 Identification of Earthenware Cooking Objects ………………….. 86 
3.6.4.1   Cooking Pots …………………………………………….. 88 
3.6.4.1.1 Form Analysis ………………………………… 88 
3.6.4.1.2 “Muttiya”……………..……………………….. 89 
 
3.6.4.2   Cooking Bowls ………………………………………....... 91 
3.6.4.2.1 Form Analysis …………………………….…... 91 
3.6.4.2.2 “Athiliya” ………………………………….….. 92 
3.6.4.2.3 “Hattiya” ……………………………………… 94 
 
VIII 
 
3.6.4.3   Cooking Trays …………………………………………… 94 
3.6.4.3.1 Form Analysis ………………………………… 94 
3.6.4.3.2 “Thatiya”…………………………………….… 95  
3.6.4.3.3 “Kabala” ……………………………………. 97 
 
3.7 Structural Analysis of  “Hattiya” ………………………………… 98 
3.7.1 Identification of “Hattiya” ………………………………… 98 
3.7.2 Manufacturing Processes of “Hattiya” …………………… 102 
3.7.3 Structural Analysis of “Hattiya” …………………………. 106 
3.7.3.1 Line Segment of “Hattiya” ………………..…. 106 
3.7.3.2 Structure of a “Hattiya” ………………………. 109 
 
3.7.4 Orifice and Rim Varieties of “Hattiya” ………………….. 112 
3.7.5 Importance of Body, Base and Stability of the “Hattiya”…. 115 
3.7.6 Relationship Between “Hattiya” and Lid ………………… 121  
3.7.7 Current situation of the ‘Hattiya” and Lid ………..………. 125 
3.7.8 Size Varieties of Present “Hattiya” ………………………. 126 
3.7.9 Size Varieties  of Lid ……………………………………… 136 
 
3.8 Summary ………………………………………………………….. 137 
 
 
 
 
 
 
IX 
 
Chapter Four 
METHODOLOGY 
4.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………. 138 
4.1     Research Method  ……………………………………………………........... 138 
4.2     Definition of  Key factors ………………………………………………....... 139 
4.3     Research Model …………………………………………………………..… 142 
4.4     Hypothesis Testing ……………………………………………………….… 144 
4.5    Questionnaire Design & Questionnaire Survey Method ……………………. 145 
4.6     Sample Selection ……………………………………………………………. 147 
4.7     Method of Data Measurement  …………………………………………….. 149 
4.8     Questionnaire Development - (Question Type Two) ……………………..… 179 
4.9     Summary  …………………………………………………………..………. 152 
 
 
Chapter Five 
DATA ANALYSIS  
5.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………. 153 
5.1 Sample Distribution …………………………………………………………… 153 
5.1.1 Sample Selection for Questionnaire  ………………….…………... 153 
5.1.2 Sample Distribution of Gender  ………………….………………... 154 
5.1.3 Sample Distribution of Age Group  …………………..…………… 156 
5.1.4 Sample Distribution of Educational Qualifications ……………....  157 
5.1.5 Sample Distribution of Occupation  ………………….…………… 159 
5.1.6 Sample Distribution of Monthly Income  ……………..…………... 161 
5.1.7 Sample Distribution of  Number of Family Members ……………...163 
5.1.8 Sample Distribution of Energy Usage for Cooking Purpose …….....165 
 
X 
 
5.2 Data Records of the Survey ……………………………………………... 166 
 5.2.1 Survey Data of Key Factors ……………………………………….. 166 
5.2.2 Survey Data of Shape & Form …………………………………….. 168 
  5.2.3 Survey Data of Texture ……………………………………………. 169 
5.2.4 Survey Data of Value ……………………………………………… 170 
 
5.2.5 Survey Data of Balance …………………………………………… 171 
5.2.6 Survey Data of Proportion ……………………………………..….. 172 
 
5.3 Summary of Five selected Design Factors of “Hattiya” ………….………. 173 
5.4 Hypothesis Testing …………………………………………………………174  
5.5 Summary  ………………………………………………………………….. 176 
 
CONCLUSION  …………………………………………………………... 177 
 
REFERENCES ……………………………………………………………. 180 
 
LIST OF ANNEXURE …………………………………………………… 183 
 
 
 
 
 
 
XI 
 
LIST OF FIGURES 
        Page 
Chapter One 
Figure 1.1: Problem Identification …………………………………………………… 08 
 
Chapter Two 
Figure 2.1:  Relationship between Designer and Craftsman …………………… 15 
Figure 2.2: Frame Work of Product Experience …………………………………… 20 
Figure 2.3: Mug and the Way of Using Hand …………………………………… 26 
Figure 2.4: Handling  A Clay Pot (a-b) …………………………………………… 28 
Figure 2.5: Basic Design Principles and Elements …………………………… 31 
Figure 2.6: Structural Balance of Cooking Pots ( a , b ) …………………………… 34 
Figure 2.7: Vessel Stability …………………………………………………… 35 
Figure 2.8: Positive Shape and Negative Space of Products …………………… 37 
Figure 2.9: Basic Shapes of  Clay Vessels………………………………………….. 39 
Figure 2.10: Development of Cylinder Shape on the Wheel   …………………… 39 
Figure 2.11: Development of Flat Shape on the Wheel …………………………… 39  
Figure 2.12:  Development of Sphere Shape on the Wheel …………………… 39  
Figure 2.13: Use of Sphere Shape for Products (a , b) …………………………… 39 
Figure 2.14: Section of Embossed and Engraved Method  …………………………… 44 
Figure 2.15: Use Engraving method for “Nebiliya”- Tactile Texture …………… 44 
Figure 2.16: Structure of a Clay Vessel …………………………………………… 47   
Figure 2.17: Major Subdivisions of Pottery Vessel………………………………….... 48 
Figure 2.18: Restricted and Unrestricted Shapes …………………………………… 50 
XII 
 
Figure 2.19:  Earthenware Cooking Pot……………………………………..………. 51  
Figure 2.20: Position of Thickening with Relation to Vessel Wall …………………… 53 
Figure 2.21: Junction of Thickened Part with Wall …………………………………… 53 
Figure 2.22: Point of Greatest Thickness ……………………………………………… 53 
Figure 2.23: Ratio of Rim Thickness to Wall Thickness ……………………………… 54 
Figure 2.24: Relative Length of Thickened Part ………………………………………. 54 
Figure 2.25: Shape of Thickened Part …………………………………………………   54 
Figure 2.26: Variety of Body Shapes of Clay Cooking Pots (a,b,c) …………… 55 
Figure 2.27: Flat Bases (a,b) …………………………………………………… 56 
Figure 2.28: Round Bases (a,b) …………………………………………………… 56 
Figure 2.29: Product Stability …………………………………………………… 57 
Figure 2.30: Base with a Foot …………………………………………………… 57 
Figure 2.31: Staking of Clay Pots …………………………………………………… 57 
 
Chapter Three  
Figure 3.1: Bowl- without Orifice  …………………………………………… 61 
Figure 3.2: Development stage of “Hattiya” …………………………………… 61 
Figure 3.3: Development stage of “Muttiya” …………………………………… 61 
Figure 3.4: “Muttiya” with simple Decoration …………………………………… 62 
Figure 3.5: Earthenware Cooking Pots …………………………………………… 65 
Figure 3.6: Decorated Water Pots …………………………………………………… 66 
Figure 3.7:  Decorated Water Pots …………………………………………… 66 
Figure 3.8:  The Purpose of Processing and Use of Products …………………… 70 
Figure 3.9: The Purpose of Transport and Use of Products …………………… 72 
XIII 
 
Figure 3.10: The Purpose of Storage and Use of Products …………………………… 74 
Figure 3.11 :  Storage “Muttiya” and “Nebiliya” (a, b) …………………………… 75 
Figure 3.12: “Muttiya” covered with “Nebiliya” …………………………………… 76 
Figure 3.13: Use of “Kadawesma”  …………………………………………… 78 
Figure 3.14: Earthenware Culinary Products and their Functions …………………… 81 
Figure 3.15: Variety of “Nembiliya”- Section …………………………………… 82 
Figure 3.16: Variety of “Koraha”- Section …………………………………… 83 
Figure 3.17: Variety of “Adiwalada” – Section …………………………………… 84 
Figure 3.18: Variety of Lid- Section  …………………………………………… 84 
Figure 3.19: A Lid …………………………………………………………………… 85 
Figure 3.20: Section of “Pittumudi” (a , b)…………………………………………… 85 
Figure 3.21: Variety of “Pittumudi” (a , b) …………………………………… 85 
Figure 3.22: Importance of “Pittumudiya” …………………………………………… 86 
Figure 3.23: Structural Development of Spherical Shape …………………………… 87 
Figure 3.24: Shape Varieties ……………………………………………………. 87  
Figure 3.25: Form Analysis of Pot Shape …………………………………………… 88 
Figure 3.26: Veddas Pot …………………………………………………………… 89 
Figure 3.27: Variety of “Muttiya”…………………………………………………… 89 
Figure 3.28: Variety of “Muttiya” – Section …………………………………… 90 
Figure 3.29: Form Analysis of Bowl Shape (a,b) …………………………………… 92 
Figure 3.30: Variety of “Athiliya” – Section …………………………………… 92 
Figure 3.31: “Athiliya” …………………………………………………………… 92 
Figure 3.32: “Hattiya” covered with “Adiwalada” …………………………… 93 
Figure 3.33: Form analysis of Tray Shape …………………………………………… 94 
XIV 
 
Figure 3.34: Variety of “Thatiya” – Section …………………………………… 96 
Figure 3.35: Side View of “Thatiya” …………………………………………… 96 
Figure 3.36: “Kiri Roti Thatiya” – Section …………………………………………… 96 
Figure 3.37:  Variety of “Kabala” – Section …………………………………… 97 
Figure 3.38:  A “Hattiya” …………………………………………………………… 99 
Figure 3.39:  A “Kundahattiya” …………………………………………………… 99 
Figure 3.40:  Wheel Thrown Curd Pots …………………………………………… 99 
Figure 3.41:  Curd Pot making Machine      ……………………………………..…… 100 
Figure 3.42:  “Kiri Hattiya” (a ,b)……………………………………………………… 100 
Figure 3.43:  Importance of “Hattiya”…………………………………………………. 101 
Figure 3.44:  Steps of Manufacturing “Hattiya”, “Edikaranawa” (a , b) ……………. 102 
Figure 3.45:  Leather hard Products – without Base ……………………………. 102 
Figure 3.46:  Making a Bottom part of the vessel (a , b) ……………………………. 103 
Figure 3.47:  Finishing Products ……………………………………………………. 103 
Figure 3.48:  Green ware products …………………………………………………… 103 
Figure 3.49:  Tools ……………………………………………………………………. 104  
Figure 3.50:  Variety of “Athakoluwa”………………………………………………… 104 
Figure 3.51:  Variety of “Athgala” ……………………………………………………. 104 
Figure 3.52:  Covered with “Kabal” (Damaged pots) ……………………………. 105 
Figure 3.53:  Covered with Clay …………………………………………………… 105 
Figure 3.54:  Firing ……………………………………………………………………. 105 
Figure 3.55: Line Segments of “Hattiya” (a,b)………………………………………… 107 
Figure 3.56: Variety of “Hattiya” …………………………………………………….. 108 
Figure 3.57:  Bend point Changes -  “Muttiya” ……………………………………. 109 
XV 
 
Figure 3.58:  Bend point Changes and structural development of the “Hattiya” ……. 109 
Figure 3.59: Upper Part & Lower Part of the “Hattiya” ……………………………. 110 
Figure 3.60: Basic Structure of the Vessel (“Hattiya”) ……………………………. 111 
Figure 3.61: Identification of Lip Variations of the “Hattiya” ……………………. 112 
Figure 3.62: Sections of Orifices (“Hattiya”) ……………………………………. 113 
Figure 3.63: Variety of Orifices (“Hattiya”) ……………………………………. 114 
Figure 3.64: Variety of Surface Decorations used in “Hattiya”(a,b,c,d) ……………. 116 
Figure 3.65:  Section of a clay body ……………………………………………. 116 
Figure 3.66:    Stability of the “Hattiya” (a/b) ……………………………………. 117 
Figure 3.67:  Variety of Base Shapes and heat absorption …………………………… 118 
Figure 3.68:  Spoons made out of coconut shells …………………………………… 119 
Figure 3.69:  Use of “Daranuwa” …………………………………………………… 119 
Figure 3.70:  Importance of the Base …………………………………………… 120  
Figure 3.71:  Variety of Base Shapes of the “Hattiya” …………………………… 120 
Figure 3.72:  Product Stacking …………………………………………………… 121 
Figure 3.73:  Product Stacking when Transporting ………………………………….... 121 
Figure 3.74:  Structure of the Lid ……………………………………………………. 122 
Figure 3.75:  Importance of Lid …………………………………………………… 122 
Figure 3.76:  variety of Lids ……………………………………………………………. 123 
Figure 3.77:  A Lid from Colombo museum collection …………………………… 123 
Figure 3.78:  Lid varieties in present usage  ……………………………………. 123 
Figure 3.79:  A Lid with decoration …………………………………………………… 124 
Figure 3.80:  A Lid with decoration ……………………………………………………. 124 
Figure 3.81:  Variety of Surface Decorations in Lids ( a , b) …………………… 124 
XVI 
 
Figure 3.82:  Size Variations of Present “Hattiya” …………………………………… 127 
Figure 3.83:  Section of the – “Hattiya” Type – 1 …………………………………… 129 
Figure 3.84:  Side View – “Hattiya” Type – 1 (a,b) …………………………… 129 
Figure 3.85:  Section of the  – “Hattiya” Type – 2 …………………………………… 130 
Figure 3.86:  Base of the “Hattiya” Type – 2 …………………………………… 130 
Figure 3.87:  Side View -“Hattiya” Type – 2 …………………………………… 130 
Figure 3.88:  Section of the  – “Hattiya” Type – 3 …………………………………… 131 
Figure 3.89:  Side View -“Hattiya” Type – 3 (a,b) …………………………………… 131 
Figure 3.90:  Shape of the Base– “Hattiya” Type – 3 …………………………… 132 
Figure 3.91:  Section of the  – “Hattiya” Type – 4 ………………….………………… 132 
Figure 3.92:  Side view -“Hattiya” Type – 4 (a,b) …………………………………… 133 
Figure 3.93:  Section of the – “Hattiya” Type – 5 ……………………………....……. 133 
Figure 3.94:  Base of the “Hattiya” Type – 5 ……………………………………. 134 
Figure 3.95:  Side view of the “Hattiya” Type -5 (a,b )  ……………………………… 134 
Figure 3.96:  Section Drawing – “Hattiya” Type – 6 …………………………… 135 
Figure 3.97:  Side View of the “Hattiya” Type -6 (a , b) ……………………………. 135 
Figure 3.98:  Base of the “Hattiya” Type – 6 ……………………………………. 136 
Figure 3.99:  Section of the  – Lid ……………………………………………………. 136 
Figure 3.100:  Variety of Lids …………………………………………………..... 136  
 
Chapter Five 
Figure 5.1: Sample Selection ……………………………………………………. 154 
Figure 5.2:  Sample Distribution of Gender  ……………………………………. 155 
Figure 5.3:  Sample Distribution of Age Group ……………………………………. 156   
XVII 
 
Figure 5.4:  Sample Distribution of Educational Qualifications ……………………. 158  
Figure 5.5:  Sample Distribution of Occupation ……………………………………. 160  
Figure 5.6:  Sample Distribution of Monthly Income ……………………………. 162  
Figure 5.7:  Sample Distribution of Number of Family Members ……………. 164  
Figure 5.8:  Sample Distribution of Energy Usage for Cooking Purpose ……………. 165 
Figure 5.9:  Data of Key Factors of the Survey ……………………………………. 167 
Figure 5.10:  Summary of the Analysis of Five Selected Factors of “Hattiya” ……. 173 
Figure 5.11:  Importance of the Design Facts of “Hattiya”……………………………. 174 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
XVIII 
 
LIST OF TABLES 
            Page 
Chapter One  
Table 1.1: Problem Identification ……………………………………………. 08 
 
Chapter Three 
Table 3.1: Function Terms of the Local Household Pottery ……………………. 80 
Table 3.2: Price of Ordinary “Hatties” and Lids ……………………………………. 125 
 
Chapter Four 
Table 4.1: Key Factors ……………………………………………………………. 139 
Table 4.2: Definition of Key Factors ……………………………………………. 139 
Table 4.3: Age Level Distribution ……………………………………………. 146  
Table 4.4: Scale for Positive and Negative Questions ……………………………. 149 
Table 4.5: Clarification of Questionnaire……………………………………………. 150  
 
Chapter Five 
Table 5.1: Sample Selection ……………………………………………………. 154 
Table 5.2: Sample Distribution of Gender ……………………………………. 154  
Table 5.3: Sample Distribution of Age Group ……………………………………. 156  
Table 5.4: Sample Distribution of Educational Qualification ……………………. 157  
Table 5.5: Sample Distribution of Occupation ……………………………………. 159  
Table 5.6: Sample Distribution of Monthly Income ……………………………. 161  
XIX 
 
Table 5.7: Sample Distribution of Number of Family Members ……………………. 163 
Table 5.8: Sample Distribution of Energy Usage for Cooking Purpose ……………. 165 
Table 5.9: Data of Key Factors of the Survey ……………………………………. 167 
Table 5.10: Survey Data of Shape & Form ……………………………………. 168  
Table 5.11: Survey Data of Texture …………………………………………..... 169  
Table 5.12: Survey Data of Value ……………………………………………………. 170 
Table 5.13: Survey Data of Balance ……………………………………………. 171 
Table 5.14: Survey Data of Proportion ……………………………………………. 172 
Table 5.15: Summary of the Analysis ……………………………………………. 173 
Table 5.16: Importance of the Design Facts of “Hattiya”……………………………. 174 
Table 5.17: Hypothesis Model ……………………………………………………. 175 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
XX 
 
LIST OF ANNEXURE 
 
Annexure 1 - Questionnaire Type - One  ………………………………….…………….. 183 
Annexure 2 - Questionnaire Type – Two …………………………………….………….. 185 
Annexure 3 - “Hattiya” Type -  1 ……………………………………………………….. 192 
Annexure 4 - “Hattiya” Type – 2 …………………………………………..…………… 193 
Annexure 5 - “Hattiya” Type – 3 ……………………………………………..………… 194 
Annexure 6 - A lid - Small Size ……………………………………………………... 195 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
XXI 
 
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 
 
BL- Balance 
BRW - Black and Red Wares 
BW - Black Ware  
DE - Design Elements 
DFM - Design for market  
DP -  Design Principles 
GW - Graphite Ware 
H- Height 
MCW -  Mica Coated Ware 
N- Negative 
P- Positive  
PR- Proportion  
Q- Question 
RW -  Red Wares 
SH – Shape 
TE – Texture 
VA- Value 
W- Width 
 
 
 1 
Chapter One 
 
IMPORTANCE OF CERAMIC PRODUCTS 
 
0.1 Introduction 
 
This is an introductory chapter and it discusses the importance of ceramic products 
particularly, low temperature earthenware products in Sri Lanka. This chapter 
includes the research problem, importance of the study, research limitations, and 
research methodology.   
 
1.1 Identify ceramic as a valuable invention 
 
Water, fire, air, earth and space are the basic natural elements in the planet. The 
world is controlled by these five basic elements. It can be described as; “Pancha- 
mahabutha” (Apo- water, Thejo- fire, Wayoo – air, Patavi - earth, Akasha- space.    
These basic natural elements have a great impact on human beings and their 
requirements. 
 
Ceramic is a natural material formed with the combination of above mentioned 
elements. Earth means clay, which is flexible when mixed with water, and gets 
hardened by the effect of air and that shape will be made permanent by the effect of 
fire and also product volume will be created as a result of the way of handling the 
space. These are the basic steps of making clay ware objects. Sentence (2004) 
explained about the use of four types of basic elements for clay product 
manufacturing; “We are enthralled by the magic of a craft that involves all four of 
the elements: earth mixed with water cooked in a fire and coloured by the presence 
or absence of air. It feels as though, while molding the clay to our will, we could 
almost breathe life in to it” (p.9).  
 
 
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Origin of the clay industry is going back to the beginning of the civilization. As it is 
said by Jirousek (1995), “The art of ceramics is one of the oldest known, dating to 
prehistoric times. Clay is a special kind of earth, found all over the world that is 
easily worked when it is moistened, but can be hardened and made waterproof by 
exposing to heat. The earliest forms of construction were pinched that is, the clay is 
formed with the fingers to the desired shape”.  
 
Clay was an ideal material for making cooking pots. People have identified clay as a 
flexible material which can be handled easily, when mixed with water. When 
comparing with other materials such as enamel, and stainless steel, clay can be used 
to create various types of clay objects for different purposes. Therefore 
manufacturing clay products can be seen as a structural and a systematic process. 
Finally a piece of clay can be turned in to a beautiful and useful clay product by 
adding life to it through this systematic process. 
 
Manufacturing of the clay cooking pots has a long history and it dates back to the 
prehistoric time.  “Clay, water, and fire over 10,000 years ago the world’s first 
ceramic combined these ingredients to produce one of the most significant 
innovations in all of human history the clay cooking pots” (Skibo, Walker, and 
Nielsen ,1995, p.80). It is believed that clay cooking pots had a good origination and 
conceited history. It is a known fact that Sri Lanka had a great history for the ceramic 
Industry. It is a wonderful craft created by people and goes back to five thousand 
years ago. Although people were engaged in this industry in larger numbers, it has 
been decreased with the passage of time. They used to produce products of good 
quality to cater the functionality. It has been proved by archeological excavations; 
which are evaluated constantly and these evidence help to get an idea about past 
society and their customs. “The study vessel shape can be form the standpoint of 
function, aesthetics, or taxonomy has the appeal of human interest, the purpose of 
vessels tell something of the activities and customs of the product who used them” 
(Anna,1980,p.26). It is believed that ceramic is one of the facts which say about 
society and it also reveals the behaviors of the people who used in that particular 
society. This can be explained vividly through archeological supportive information.  
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“The clay pots and jars from the most enduring record of human activity in this part 
of the world, during the prehistoric period to the present” (Gallery-2010). 
 
As a result of the arrival of foreign technology and advanced mechanism to the Sri 
Lankan clay industry, porcelain industry showed a great development. Hence the 
earthenware industry in Sri Lanka was neglected to a certain extent. Porcelain 
material was immensely used to manufacture advanced products than the culinary 
items. Therefore the earthenware industry was badly affected as most of the people 
preferred to engage in the porcelain industry. This situation would have been created 
due to insufficient facilities, lack of techniques and primary manufacturing methods 
in earthenware industry. Since earthenware clay is a quality material which has a 
manufacturing capacity, it can be developed immensely to cater the present social 
needs. Past clay pots had correct shapes and forms for the usage and it had the 
stability, proper angles, body shapes to serve the purpose of functionality. 
 
Although clay was a simple and a basic material, it was developed in various ways. 
At present, several types of ceramic varieties exist in Sri Lanka. According to the 
firing temperature and body composition, it can be categorized in to five different 
types as Terracotta ware, Earthenware, Stone ware, Porcelain and Bone China 
(Thakashima, 2004). This categorization is different from country to county and it 
also will be changed in accordance with body composition and firing temperature of 
clay products. From this classification; earthenware can be described as low 
temperature (red/brown colour) and high temperature body (red/brown and gray). 
The low temperature earthenware is used as a main material to manufacture culinary 
products.  
 
By considering the product functionality and usage of ceramic products it can also be 
divided into three main categories.  According to (Coomaraswamy, 1979), there are 
three main types of product variations which can be identified in Sri Lanka. They are 
Domestic ware, Ritual ware and Architectural ware. In addition, to these types toys 
and ornamental ware are produced in Sri Lanka presently. Earthenware clay is an 
ideal material to manufacture domestic products. According to the above 
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classification, domestic products are frequently used in each and every house in Sri 
Lanka and cooking pots play a huge role among the domestic products.  
 
The domestic usage products can be classified in to three main parts with a view of 
product functionality. Rice (1987) explains about three varieties of “Domestic 
products; Storage products, Processing products, and Transferring products” (p.207).  
It is a known fact that most of the people in ancient Sri Lanka used clay pots as their 
kitchen utensils, because clay is a recyclable and eco-friendly material.   
 
It is very important to note that, during the process of earthenware manufacturing the 
environment is not affected by any harmful effect. Materials like aluminum and the 
processes of aluminum casting release several types of dreadful things to the 
environment. (Mudalige,2010) said “They are turned out using an eco-friendly 
production processes (drain casting) in comparison to the aluminum casting 
processes that generates high heat and chemical fumes which adversely affect the 
working environment”. It is believed that the clay is a suitable and environment 
receptive material. Manufacturing and cooking in clay pots do not have any bad 
effect to the environment and human health. Not only that, it has also added an 
additional taste for the foods when cooking in clay pots. Clay pots have a quality of 
cooling and heating food and also have the special quality of absorbing excess fat to 
the clay body.  
 
People have changed the usual fuel type in order to suit their busy life style. In the 
past, wood was used as the main fuel material. But it is understood that it takes a 
long time to prepare foods. Due to this reason gas has been used as a main fuel 
material in the present. Clay cooking pots also take time to get heated than the other 
cooking pots made of other materials like aluminum, stainless steel and non-stick etc. 
Despite the wastage of gas, by using clay utensils, people tend to use them more and 
more now, as it is good for their health. 
 
 
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The other specialty of earthenware product is that it has a simple and low cost 
production process when compared with other clay materials such as porcelain, 
stoneware and also the other materials like plastic and enamel. Sri Lanka is famous 
for earthenware clay manufacturers. It has a cultural identity, and social impression. 
As a material it has a quality of workability and the ability to control the wall 
thicknesses. Currently people are not aware of the importance of earthenware 
culinary products, and also the manufactures do not consider about the design, 
quality of the product and its functionality.     
 
 
1.2 Problem Identification 
 
In a fast moving world, life has become more competitive and busy. Therefore 
people are compelled to change their traditions in order to face new challenges in 
life. Hence they tend to use alternative products which are made from other materials 
such as Nonstick, Aluminum, Stain-less steel, and Enamel etc. Although these 
products make the life easy and comfortable, with the passage of time people 
understood certain disadvantages of these alternative products. It has been found that 
the materials like Nonstick, Aluminum, Stain-less steel, and Enamel would cause 
fatal diseases like cancer and kidney ailments, if they are used for a prolonged 
period. (Mudalige, 2010) explained about the disadvantages of  the pots made out 
with other material as; “Traditional cookware found in Sri Lanka such as those made 
with aluminum, stainless steel and non-stick have been reported to cause health 
disorders in continuous use”. 
 
Due to the urbanization, the kitchen arrangement also has changed. Most of the 
houses consist a place called pantry which is used for both cooking and dinning. 
There are houses which have both the pantry and the kitchen. In those houses clay 
products are used mainly in the kitchen because of the ill-effects which have been 
mentioned earlier.  The utensils which are made from other materials are used in the  
 
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pantry because they have smooth attractive values. But these imitated products are 
good for short time usage and not good for long time usage.  
 
Clay pots are more suitable to prepare foods in all aspects. But people hesitate to 
cook and serve food in clay products in the pantry, because of the less quality of 
product and unattractive designs. Therefore clay pots have to be developed in order 
to suite for the use in the pantry. “In the urban houses there are various vessels for 
various tasks. The kitchen is different in the urban context. However the kitchen has 
been subjected to change vastly. Since the ancient days and adjusted accordingly 
with the busy life style of man” (Markewita, 2005, p.1). It can be used as a serving 
object for a change; as clay has a quality of heating, cooling and good for hygienic 
matters. Therefore clay vessels can be identified as an ideal material for long time 
usage.  
 
Hence it is obvious that using clay products is good for human lives. People hesitate 
to use them much in the present due to several disadvantages. Much attention is not 
paid to the functional usage and the attractive finish. It is proved that “Cleaning 
difficulty and low thermal expansion are the main draw backs of traditional red clay 
products” (Mudalige, 2010). The main disadvantages of clay pots are unattractive 
finish and improper functional usage. 
 
Although all the clay vessels are not manufactured attractively, it is one of the factors 
that have to be paid much attention in pottery industry. Because people like to use 
good quality product combined with design efficiency and functional validity. 
“Purely decorative pots have total freedom of expression, while functional 
considerations impose compromise in both form and aesthetic development in pots 
that are made to be used. The various needs that domestic pottery servers 
predetermine to some extent the forms those were and are made. Within all of these 
basic forms there has usually been considerable room for invention, variation, and 
improvisation within a theme” (Hopper, 2000, p.29). Hence it is obvious that 
functional value of products is a key factor in domestic pottery. Generally clay pots 
in the current usage do not possess a good finish and surface quality, structural 
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quality, product appearance and aesthetical appearance. They also have defects like 
water leaking and less heat absorption.  
 
Most of the clay cooking pots do not maintain a good standard, as they have less 
design qualities. This must be due to the result of less attention paid to the important 
aspects like material qualities and technical limitations of the product. If the 
manufactures pay their attention to those aspects, their end product would reach the 
required standard. Therefore, at the beginning of the process of manufacturing clay 
products the quality of the clay(to obtain rough and smooth surfaces, porosity) 
designs, shapes, forms and (bottom shape, orifice and belly), functionality (product 
stability, keeping on hearth) have to be taken in to consideration, as they are main 
aspects of the manufacturing clay cooking pots.  
 
If more attention is paid for the design efficiency and functionality, the final product 
will undoubtedly be attractive and handy. Obviously these are the key factors in 
manufacturing clay products and they play a vital role in developing the domestic 
clay products. Therefore this research is carried out in order to identify the strength 
of design efficiency and how it can be developed to fulfill current social needs.  It 
will also help to identify design errors, technical and manufacturing limitations, and 
design developments of earthenware clay cooking pots. This will also benefit the 
consumers and product manufactures, in order to re establish earthenware potter 
community in Sri Lanka.  
 
 
 
1.3       Problem Identification by Questionnaire Survey 
 
It has been identified that the clay cooking pots are not widely used by people in the 
current society. It is believed that most of these products do not cater to the needs of 
the people. Thus, a questionnaire was carried out to identify the present situation of 
clay pots (“Hattiya” and lid) clearly. The objective of the questionnaire is to identify 
the reasons for that situation and to identify the areas that have to be developed of the 
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product. The questionnaire will also be used to identify the problems of present 
“Hattiya” through the consumers’ experiences and to obtain their valid opinions 
regarding the development of clay products.  
 
The questionnaire type one is used for problem identification of clay pots. It is 
distributed among the people, especially to the people who live in urban places. It 
consists of 6 questions and will be given to 50 people to collect the data. 
 
Question Type One- (See Annexure -1) 
 
A- General information (Section-A) consists of basic information like; Name, 
age, education qualification, gender, occupation, monthly income, no of family 
members etc.  
 
 B- Problem Identification 
 
 
 
Comments No. of People % 
Need to Develop  44 88 
No Need to Develop 6 12 
Total  50 100 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
Table 1.1: Problem Identification  
 
Figure 1.1: Problem Identification 
 
12%
88%
   
   
Need to Develop 
No Need to Develop
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The results of questionnaire survey shows that 88% people suggest that the clay 
cooking pots should be developed and 12% of people do not propose that idea. 
According to the results it is understood that the clay cooking pots are in a 
developmental stage.  
 
1.4 Importance of the study 
 
Although Sri Lanka had a great history for earthenware industry (See Section 1.1), 
there has been a significant decrease in it due to the foreign influence. Therefore this 
research will make an attempt to identify the importance of producing earthenware 
cooking pots and the drawbacks which arise in the industry. It will also help to 
identify the areas which have to be developed according to the needs of the present 
society. Here the attention is drawn to the main aspects such as design elements and 
design principals of products.  
 
Further this research will be useful for product manufacturers and users, to upgrade 
their products to fulfill present social needs.  As a result of that, consumer will be 
able to get an easy product which has a functional validity. This research will also 
help to build a new trend in pottery manufacturers by emphasizing the needs for 
improving design efficiency of cooking products. It will help to identify key factors 
and guidelines, in the industry in order to develop earthenware cooking pots which 
will absolutely suit present social requirements.  
 
1.5 Limitations 
 
Study of ceramic is a vast area that can be studied from several viewpoints due to its 
multi disciplinary complexity. Ceramic products have been existed since the early 
history of Sri Lanka. But this research focuses its attention only on domestic low 
temperature earthenware cooking pots, which are used for food processing. Several 
types of cooking pots have been used for the purpose of processing. But one type of 
product can be used for several purposes. It is one of the advantages of earthenware 
vessels. Presently there is a trend to use clay pots by the people who live in urban 
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areas. But they are not satisfied with the qualities of the product as they lack the 
certain important features. Therefore this research will consider only selected 
earthenware clay cooking pots which are mostly used in houses in urban areas. Due 
to the busy lifestyle it is very necessary to use convenient and different methods in 
preparing food.  Colombo and Kandy are the main areas where the data is collected. 
These two places have been selected in order to show the various differences with 
regard to the people, the type of food they consume and also the different methods 
that they follow in cooking. 
 
This research focuses on design considerations of the product. It will help to identify 
design problems, design developments and the characteristics which have to be 
considered, particularly. In this research the item “Hattiya” is taken as a sample 
object and lid is taken as a supportive object to collect data. Both these objects have 
raised much attention in this study. Design principles and design elements related to 
the ceramic ware are also considered with a view to achieve design efficiency of the 
clay cooking pots.  
 
1.6 Methodology 
 
The information and data which will be collected using the following methods will 
be analyzed under several key sections of the research.  
 
Primary data 
Questionnaire type Two (See Annexure - 2.) .Primary data will be collected from the 
primary source (original source) by using structured questionnaire and field visits. 
The questionnaire will be given to people who live in urban areas (Colombo and 
Kandy).The questionnaires mainly focus on the drawbacks of present “Hattiya” and 
the lid, in order to obtain their suggestions to develop those products to cater to their 
needs. The questionnaires will be developed in considering design elements and 
design principles of the products.  
 
 
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Secondary data  
Secondary data will be collected from the previous and present earthenware cooking 
products, from the books, websites, research journals, research articles, museums 
artifact and archeological excavations etc.  
 
 
1.7     Summary 
 
This chapter has discussed about the importance of clay cooking pots and present 
condition of the clay cooking pots. It also includes the research problems, research 
limitations, methodology and importance of the research. Next chapter will describe 
the theoretical background and structural analysis of earthenware clay cooking pots. 
It will also explain the advantages and disadvantages of current clay cooking pots.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Chapter Two 
 
DESIGN EFFICIENCY AND FUNCTIONAL USE OF CERAMIC 
PRODUCTS 
 
0.2 Introduction 
 
This chapter includes the literature review of the research. Although there were less 
documentary evidences and recorded data about ceramic products, available data has 
provided an immense support in this study. This chapter also discusses the design, 
design efficiency, product usage and functionality along with the physical and 
psychological use, of the product. Furthermore the basic theories and anatomy of the 
specific earthenware vessel “Hattiya” have also been included in this chapter. The 
main objective of this chapter is to identify the relative theory of design elements and 
design principles of clay cooking pots.  
 
 
2.1 Identify Designs, Design Efficiency and Product Functionality of Clay 
Vessels.  
 
Design and design efficiency have a great impact on the product functionality. The 
function and usage of the product is decided by the consumers and users.  
“Other design objects such as furniture tools and appliances must be conceived in 
relation to function and often, the contours of human body that will use the object” 
(Jirousek., 1995, p.3) 
 
The role of the designer is to produce a new product which fulfills human needs. 
Product functionality, and design efficiency are the main factors that have to be 
considered much and if the product lacks any of these two it cannot be considered as 
a good product. Therefore design efficiency and functionality are identified as main 
features of a standard clay product. 
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2.1.1 What is Design? 
 
Design origin dates back to the beginning of the civilizations. All the designs of 
earthenware products were created with a view to fulfilling human needs and 
requirements. At the beginning people did not consider the design value of a product. 
They only concerned about the purpose and the usage of the product. 
 
Design cannot be explained in one word. It has been defined in several ways. It is an 
innovation of humans to fulfill some needs. Mayall (1979) stated that “Design 
conceives and defines all the means we employ to satisfy our many and increasing 
intricate needs” (p.9). Design is the process of taking something from its existing 
state and moving it to a preferred state. “ every experience both takes up something 
from those which have one before and modifies in some way the quality of those 
which comes after” (Dewey, 1938, p. 34) . The prior experience and knowledge 
which possessed by the user, in relation to a product, might be especially relevant 
factors in their value assessment of product. Design is an experiment done with 
previous experiences.  
 “Design is that area of human experience, skill and knowledge which is concerned 
with mans ability to mould his environment to suit his material and spiritual needs” 
(Archers, 1973)  
 
Experience is used to; select a good product and to handle it properly. Designing is 
not a simple process. It can be identified as a well structured production process. 
“Designer product has a long designing process. It need to well planning and 
organizing. It has to exceed different steps, such as; Problem identification, 
Research, Analysis, Specification, Developing, Proposals, Planning, Making, 
Evolution” (Bull, 2000, p.3). To obtain a designer product one has to go through 
several stages in the process. The main issue of the final product is to accomplish the 
requirements of the user. If It does not meet the consumers’ requirements, it cannot 
be considered as a convenient product.  
 
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Usually there is a selected target group for every product. If there is a target group it 
is easy to understand the consumers’ needs and what they expect from the product. 
As an example when designing something for kids, it is needed to study children’s 
behaviors and their physical and psychological aspects. This enables the 
manufacturer to design a good product which will achieve their needs and 
preferences. Design should be consumer oriented; basically it would meet the 
consumer’s requirements.  
 
 
 Bull (2000) has pointed out, “When you start designing, there are some questions 
that you need to ask. You cannot begin if you don’t know what you are to design or 
its context. You need to know who is for, what size it should be, its’ cost, how it is to 
be made, the material or ingredients needed and any safety considerations. When you 
have started to design, you will have to make decisions and, probably, changers 
before you can start manufacture or production. You may still have to make 
changers, even while making, to produce a good final product. This constant 
improvement is an iterative process. Then you have to evaluate the product, does it 
satisfy the needs of the customer or client” (p.2).   
 
“Design work cannot be undertaken effectively without establishing working 
relationships with all those activities concerned with the conception, manufacturing 
and marketing of products and, importantly, with the prospective user, together with 
all the services he may call upon to assist his judgment and protect his interest” 
(Mayall, 1997. p.137). Design product is a user centered product, it has a relationship 
with the user and makers in every way. Suri (2003) and Melican (2004) stated that, 
“The concept of user centered design has arguably given rise to one of the most 
fundamental changers in the field of design over the past few decades”. It is obvious 
that every product should be a user centered product.  
 
 
 
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Source: (Mayall, 1997, p.137) 
 
Design can be explained as a response of social problems or people’s requirements. 
Design can be identified as some kind of ideas expressed to others using materials. 
User and function are major aspects of the product. By this time it has turned to a 
norm of the society. “Designers often attempt to beyond the primary functional 
requirements of method, use, need, telesis, association and aesthetic; they strive for a 
more consign statement precision simplicity”  
 
(Papanek,1972,p.20). According to these facts design can be identified as an 
advanced process of consisting with aesthetical, emotional, and functional values. 
Mayall (1979) explained as, “Design is concerned with how our needs are identified, 
related and, in some cases, stimulated. It affects the way in which our materials, 
energy and other resources are employed to satisfy these needs” (p.9). Therefore 
design should be an advanced well structured process.  
 
 
 
2.1.2 Identification of Design Efficiency 
 
Design efficiency can be identified as one of the main factors in the field of product 
design. Product comfortability, easy to use and fulfilling maximum consumer 
requirements are main necessities of design efficiency. Design efficiency also can be 
Designer/ Craftsman 
Products 
Needs 
User 
Figure 2.1: Relationship between Designer and Craftsman 
  
 
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identified as a main factor which accomplishes the purpose and the function of the 
product effectively. Basically it can be explained in several ways. 
“The comparison of what is actually produced or performed with what can be 
achieved with the same consumption of resources (money, time, labor, etc.). It is an 
important factor in determination of productivity”. 
www.businessdictionary.com 
It is a basic idea of efficiency. There are various meanings which can be found in 
different disciplines. 
“Efficiency in general describes the extent to which time or effort is well used for the 
intended task or purpose. It is often used with the specific gloss of relaying the 
capability of a specific application of effort to produce a specific outcome effectively 
with a minimum amount or quantity of waste, expense, or unnecessary effort. 
"Efficiency" has widely varying meanings in different disciplines”. 
        (www.wikipedia.com) 
Design efficiency is varying with disciplines, because it depends on different types of 
human needs and product variability. The norm theory is; Scientists can invent 
technologies, manufacturers can make products, engineers can make them function 
and marketers can sell them. Designers can combine insight into all these things and 
turn a concept into something that's desirable, viable, commercially successful and 
adds value to people's lives. Product is a final result of a long process. Scientists, 
engineers, and manufactures evolve to produce functional products; nevertheless 
finally the designer is playing an effective role by adding design efficiency to the 
product. Efficiency is achieved through good standards, quality and providing 
effective products to the society.  It is clearly seen in the ceramic products as most of 
the products have the functional value because of the aspect of design efficiency. It is 
one of the main aspects which should be considered in using domestic clay products. 
They should be easy to use, easy to hold, and easy to clean. When considering the 
usage of the product several types of attachments are used for easy handling. They 
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are a spout, a handle, foot, rims, and orifices which are attached to the body 
formation to achieve product efficiency. It also helps to intensify quality products to 
serve the functional purposes. 
 
2.1.3 Identification of Product Functionality  
 
Individual requirements are different from person to person and it is a basic norm of 
a human. They try to use easy and comfortable products to satisfy their needs. 
Therefore product functionality can be described as a major requirement of a good 
product. (Papanek, 1972) “The mode of action by which a design fulfills its purpose 
is its function” (p.5). Furthermore function can be identified as fulfilling some 
purpose. Function varies according to context and purposes. “The characteristics of 
all products have different relative values depending upon the different 
circumstances and times in which they may be used” (Mayall, 1979, p.67).  Product 
functionality is different, because it is decided by, the way they are using product. 
Mayall (1979) sited that, “Function’ what we want from a product, when we buy it is 
often based upon one or more functions without which what we are seeking could 
not exist” (p.72). Design, function, and need cannot be separated; as these are the 
main constituents of a functional product. 
 
‘Use value’ and ‘esteem value’ are assessed adequately in a product. Usually one 
product caters more than one functional value. Traditional water pot can be explained 
as a good example for use value and esteem value; normally the vessel is lifted with 
a single hand; placing the thumb at the rim from the exterior and the other fingers are 
used to hold the vessel through the flared rim. The small mouth is kept covered with 
a coconut shell and the water is taken out by tilting the pot allowing pouring in to 
another vessel. This minimizes spilling water. This is a good example for 
identification of product functionality. Product should be appropriate for the function 
and its usability should suit the customers’ needs. 
 
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There are varieties of key considerations which cater to functional use of product. 
When considering a ceramic object it is a user centered product. Because of that 
social position (target group), the way of using, type of user, method of cleaning, and 
method of storing can be identified as key considerations in ceramic (specially 
cooking and tableware) products. There is a rim to hold the pot, because with hot 
gravy it cannot be touched without, spilling the gravy.  Therefore, rim is used for 
functional purposes. Some pots consist of a huge body, like “Muttiya”. It is used for 
the boiling purposes.  Each and every product possesses individual characteristics to 
cater to the functionality. The shape and form of the product will be changed 
according to their personal characteristics. It is believed that the product functionality 
is one of the main features in a product life cycle. It will help to satisfy consumer 
needs and also to create a good designer product to society.  
 
2.2   Product and Product Experience  
 
Any product would be made to satisfy the needs of the people. The products would 
be differing from each other as the needs of people are different too. When a product 
is manufactured, one should ensure that it addresses the needs of many people. As 
mentioned earlier (2.1.2) the product efficiency would be high if the product as 
manufactured to be ‘practical’ as possible.  
 
There are several things that one should consider in order to increase the product 
validity. One should consider the factors that increase the build quality, the 
technological sophistication and indeed the financial value of the product. In order to 
achieve this, manufacturer should consider criterion such as functionality, shape, 
form, durability and aesthetic elements. In the terms of technology and finance, the 
manufacturer should consider things such as the method of production, materials, 
social benefits and the use of advanced technology. 
 
When a product is released to the market, and when people use it, the product will 
receive a lot of criticism, be it good or bad. This criticism is vital to improve the 
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product, to identify specific needs of users and it is important when developing new 
products.  
 
“When we buy products or when we design them we must therefore try to identify 
and value the reasons for buying or designing what we want. We would expect that 
one or more reasons will be related to the performance characteristic of our product 
and that, in general, this will be product’s key characteristic. 
(Mayall ,1979, p.73) 
 
Thus, the biggest concern of a manufacturer is to fulfill the needs of the user. When 
one observes domestic cooking pots through, one cannot see a huge development. 
They (cooking pot) should change to meet the requirements of today. Above all, the 
ease of use and the overall quality of cooking pots should be improved. A good 
product fulfills the needs of the user and it is of good quality. “Thus the life of 
objects cannot be understood in purely economical terms; we must refer to the 
dimension of desire or needs as well as that of demand” (Palmer & Dodson, 1996, 
11p). By increasing the demand of a product, one can give a better service to the user 
and give a reasonable price.  
 
When one uses a product, he might experience a variety of feelings. Those feeling 
depend on many factors; the build quality of the product, the way it is handled, the 
state of mind of the user etc. thus, the quality of the product and the consumer 
satisfaction affect the product experience directly. Desmet & Hekkert (2007) 
explained, “Experienced is shaped by the characteristics of the user (e.g., personality, 
skills, background, cultural values, and motives) and those of the product (e.g., 
shape, texture, colour and behaviors). All actions and processes that are involved, 
such as physical actions and perceptual and cognitive processes (e.g., perceiving, 
exploring, using, remembering, comparing and understanding) will contribute to the 
experience. In additionally, the experience is always influenced by the context (e.g., 
physical, social, economical) in which the interaction takes place” (p.58). In fact, 
three main factors affect the product experience;  
 
 
 20 
1. Emotional Experience 
2. Aesthetical Experience 
3. Experience of Meaning 
 
We thus define product experience as “ The entire set of affects that is elicited by the 
interaction between a user and a product, including the degree to which all our senses 
are gratified (aesthetic experiences,) the meanings we attach to the product 
(experience of meaning) and the feelings and emotion that are elicited (emotional 
experience)”. 
 
(Hekkert,2006,p.160) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Source: (Desmet & Hekkert ,2007,p.60) 
 
Therefore Emotional Experience, Aesthetical Experience, Experience of meaning 
can be identified as main components of product experiences. The aesthetical value 
directly affects the first impression that a product creates. It creates a desire to own 
Emotional 
Experience 
Experience 
of meaning 
Aesthetical 
Experience 
 
PRODUCT USER 
 
Figure 2.2: Framework of Product Experience 
 
 21 
and use the product. The aesthetic element also creates certain awareness about the 
product and gives an idea about the build quality of the product.  
 
“An aesthetic experience can give rise to an emotional experience, because aesthetic 
experiences involve pleasure and displeasure, and people are motivated to seek 
products that provide pleasure and avoid products that provide displeasure.” 
(Desmet& Hekkert, 2007, p.62) 
 
The aesthetic appearance stems the shape, form, texture, colour, value and the 
materials of the product. Identify the characteristics of the product depends on 
product experience and the cultural and personal identification. When we consider 
human emotions, it is evident that they have a tendency to change rapidly. Elements 
within and outside man, brings such changes. Emotional values are very important 
when it comes to judging the pros and cons, and indeed the significance of a product. 
Frijda, (1986) “Emotions are functional, because they establish our position vis-à-vis 
our environment, pulling us toward certain people, objects, actions, and ideas, and 
pushing us away from others” (sited by Peter & Hekket, 2007, p.61). Therefore 
emotion can be identified as a vital fact in a product.  
 
Emotional values can be decided in two ways; such as physical and mental value of 
the product. When a person uses a product he / she will receive a sense of experience 
from both faculties. Apart from this, the Experience of Meaning of a product also 
contributes to create awareness about it. According to Desmet & Hekkert (2007), at 
the level of meaning, cognition comes into play. Through cognitive processes, like 
interpretation, memory retrieval, and associations, we are able to recognize 
metaphors, assign personality or other expressive characteristics, and assess the 
personal or symbolic insignificance of products. Thus, it becomes clear that the 
Emotional Experience, the Experience of Meaning and the Aesthetic Experience 
together, create awareness about a product. These are very necessary to fulfill the 
human requirements and are very important to increase the physical and 
psychological comfortability of the people.  
 
 
 22 
2.3 Physical and Psychological Comfort of Design 
 
When a product ends up in the hand of the user, it is utilized according to his or her 
physical and mental code of conduct. A product is inextricably linked with its user 
and the life cycle of the product depends on how the user handles it. More than a lot 
of other products, Ceramic products come into contact with human hands and 
fingers. Hands and fingers are the most energetic parts of the body. Thus, a ceramic 
product should address two requirements: the Physical Comfort and the 
Psychological Comfort.  
 
( Heskett, 2002a; Margolin, 1997; Redstrom, 2006) asserts, “Design has since shifted 
focus from giving form to subjects and information to enabling user experiences, and 
form physical and cognitive human factors for the emotional, social and cultural 
contexts in which products and communication take place”(Boztepe,2007,p.55). 
These two types will help to harmonize human physically and psychologically. 
Physical contentment and psychological contentment are vital components in human 
beings. Impression and satisfaction directly affect the performance and the usage of 
the product 
 
2.3.1 What is Physical Comfort? 
 
It is the build quality and the looks of a product that suggest or serve to bring comfort 
to the user. By the build quality and the looks the user can assume how comfortable 
the product will be to use. The Physical Comfort is a result of human satisfaction 
about the object or what they use. The “Feel; of an object probably depends on a 
combination of perceptual properties” (Chen, Shao, Barnes, Childs, & Henson, 2009, 
p.68).  
 
Although one can get the feeling of a physical product by using it, the experience 
given is evaluated by the user’s psychological response. Thus, the physiology and the 
psychology are always linked. The user’s response towards the product or object 
depends on these two factors.  Physical comfort can be identified as a combination of 
 23 
the elements of visual, handling and performance. When we consider a ceramic cup, 
we can understand how it affects the user physically. The cup is handled by the hand. 
It comes into contact with hands and fingers which are sensitive parts of the body. 
Thus, the user gets the emotions and an understanding about the object quicker. 
“The considerations of proportion in conjunction with the physical feel when holding 
the form can add immeasurably to the qualities that any object may have.” 
(Hopper R., 2000, p.101) 
 
The product type, the material used, the method of use affect the Physical  reaction of 
the user. Chen, Shao, Barnes, Childs, & Henson (2009) stated that, “there is growing 
interest among consumer goods manufacturers to be able to relate products’ physical 
properties to a consumers’ emotional experience when using a product, one aspect of 
which is touch” (p.67). A clay product should be made out with a suitable material, 
with correct shapes and forms, and with a facility of easy handling. It should be felt 
by the fingers by touching and handling it, as physical comfort is an important aspect 
of a product. 
 
2.3.2 What is Psychological Comfort? 
 
The identification or the science of the human mind and human behavior is Human 
Psychology. It can also be defined as;  
“The science that deals with mental processes and behaviors”. 
(education.yahoo.com) 
 
A product can be considered as a kind of treatment (given) to the Human Mind and 
the Human Need. As mentioned earlier, the Physical comfort and the Psychological 
Comfort are linked. Sometimes, the Psychological Reaction depends on the physical 
Comfort. The Psychological Comfort helps to treat the human mind and it is more 
important than the Physical Comfort. If a product offers a high level of Psychological 
Comfort, it ( the product) remains in our memory for a long time. The Psychological 
Comfort is not an external attraction. The ability to offer a high level of 
Psychological Comfort is a good advantage for a product.  
 24 
“The words ‘affect’ and ‘experience’ have been used interchangeably in the 
introduction, because we use ‘product experience’ to refer to an experience that is 
affective. In psychology, the term affect, or affective state, is generally used to refer 
to all types of subjective experiences that are valence, that is, experience that involve 
a perceived goodness or badness, pleasantness or unpleasantness.” 
(Chen, Shao, Barnes, Childs & Henson, 2009, p.58) 
 
Although one can identify a product by its appearance, one must use it to get a proper 
understanding of the product. The quality (how good or bad it is) of a product will be 
judged by the level of mental and physical comfort it offers the user on a particular 
moment. When one uses a product, he/she feels the build quality, shape, form, 
texture and the weight of it and this affects the Physical comfort. The user’s 
Psychological preference will decide whether these physical feedbacks are good or 
bad. Thus, it is difficult to draw a line separating Physical Comfort and 
Psychological Comfort. The liking for the product and the method of use is different 
from one another. 
 
It is relatively easy to create a product for an individual, but when creating a product 
for a large community, one should understand the people’s preferences and needs. If 
this is properly done, it will result in the creation of a successful generic product. 
And this product will be called a customer oriented product.  
 
 
2.3.3 The Effect of Physical and Psychological Comfort for Ceramic Design 
 
Appearance is very important to get the first impression of the product. However it is 
not the only fact to get a proper idea about the product. Both physical and 
psychological impression help to get a proper idea of the product and it also helps to 
clarify the functionality of the product and the way it can be used.  
 
Ceramic always comes in to contact with the human body. The usage is different 
from person to person. It depends on   the quality of the product and the behavior of 
the people and their environment. 
 25 
 “The way hands are used in the lifting and holding of objects varies from person to 
person, depending on the length and thickness of the fingers and wrist, and to some 
extent, the cultural background for the user”. 
 (Hopper, 2000, p.104) 
 
Ceramic can be identified as a product which can be handled by the human hand. So 
a ceramic product should be a ‘comfortable’ piece of art. Design elements, design 
principles and ergonomics can be explained as main aspects of a ceramic product. 
They help to observe the Physical and psychological comfort of a ceramic product.  
 
The comfort that a product offers and the efficiency of the product depend on 
consumer satisfaction. As fingers are very sensitive, they send the message to the 
brain and immediately respond to the action. Consumer gets a correct opinion about 
the product and is able to hold the object safely, keeping the good balance. The 
center of gravity, the weight of the product, and the balance of the product are 
important factors of a ceramic product. 
 
“If the handle of the pitcher juts out an excessive distance from the center of gravity, 
the apparent weight will be considerably more than the actual weight.”   
(Hopper , 2000, p.104) 
 
The center of gravity helps to stabilize the product and to handle the product in the 
correct manner. Therefore the center of gravity can be considered as an essential 
aspect of the ceramic product. “The human wrist is one of the more fragile parts of 
our anatomy, being made up of a number of interlocking moveable bones. The angles 
it operates at and the weights it carries make it quite vulnerable in use and 
comparatively easy to damage. Pots, becoming excessively heavy with their contents, 
should be carefully balanced so that they can be made as easy as possible to pick up 
or to pour form” (Hopper,2000, p.104). 
 
Therefore the human wrist is an important part of the human anatomy. It will help to 
hold and handle the product in the proper manner. How a mug, cup, goblet, or pots’ 
rim profile can be felt by the fingers, hand and lips, and also how many fingers fit 
comfortably between the handle and the object, how many fingers are needed to 
 26 
comfortably lift the object without any undue damage the importance of the hand and 
the way of hanging a mug can be explained as follows,  
 
 “The finger is made of three parts, with two joints within its length from the 
knuckle. The thumb has two parts and one joint within its length. . When the fingers 
of thumb are bent, the muscles on the inner part of the finger are compressed to half 
or less of their normal length. In many fine qualities, generally industrially products 
cups the handle is made in such a way as to make it impossible to get finger through, 
necessitating a pinching action between the four fingers the thumb, with the middle 
finger supporting beneath. Most potters usually make handles where at least one 
finger goes through the aperture between the handle and pot.”  
(Hopper, 2000, p.104) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
This picture explains how to handle a mug and which fingers are to be used for this 
purpose. The weight directly affects the hanging of the object. If it is too heavy it is 
difficult to handle and it will affect physical and physiological comfort. The weight 
of the product depends on the thickness of the product and on the quality of the clay. 
Besides, each and every product should have a standard weight, but they should 
differ according to the product category and brand. Hopper (2000) describes the 
thicknesses of a product as; “The thickness of the thickest part of an average fore 
finger is approximately 1”. For a cup or mug to contain hot liquid and not burn the 
finger holding the handle, the space between the finger and the body of the pot need 
to be no more than ¼”, or a total space of 1 ½” from the inside of the handle to the 
body of the vessel. This can be changed slightly depending on the object. (p.104). 
Figure 2.3: Mug and the way of Using Hand 
 
 27 
The thickness of the product and the way it can be carried are the main concerns of a 
product.  The thickness of an earthenware product can be in between 6 to 8 mm. But 
the up thickness 10mm can be even greater. This is because the products are hand 
made. Thus, the thickness of two (of the same type) products may also differ. The 
thickness of a clay cooling pot affects its level of thermal shock resistance directly. 
The thickness of a ceramic body should not be changed at once. It should be reduced 
gradually. If not, the product will crack when heating. The thickness may vary from 
product to product from brand to brand, according to the clay material. Whether the 
product is good or bad it depends on feelings and the physical and psychological 
comfort that of user experiences.  As mentioned earlier, each product has some 
specifications; such as weight and thickness, etc. the product differs from country to 
country, from society to society but the main considerations are universal.   
 
When, using a ceramic product one can experience various emotions. These 
emotions stem from the quality of the material and the stability of the product. For 
example, in a glaze product, the surface is smooth, non porous and comfortable, but 
non glaze products have a rough quality and a porous quality. A rough textured 
surface will help to create grip between the human hand and the ceramic body 
surface. It can help to hold and hang the object in a proper manner. The different 
materials (used), can be identified by touching and feeling the surface and the 
emotional experiences. “Most forms eating and drinking vessels come in touch with 
the mouth and lips. The lips are fleshy muscular tissues covered with a highly 
sensitive thin skin. They are particularly sensitive to objects being placed between 
them. The surface quality, thickness, curvature, and width of the object are all sensed 
very quickly, and an instant reaction of pleasure or displeasure is sent to the brain. 
Ultimately, the interpretation of this massage might mean the difference between a 
piece that is enjoyed or one that is enjoyed or one that is avoided” (Hopper, 2000, 
p.103). 
 
The lack of concern for the quality of clay cooking pots has led to the unpopularity 
of the product. One can understand the quality of a product by using it. A lot of 
consideration must be given to the surface quality, thickness, curvature, shape, form 
 28 
and the size of a ceramic product. But today, these essential specifications are not 
given due consideration. As an example a mug, the orifice and the handle come 
directly into contact with the human hand. Likewise, in a cooking pot, the orifice, the 
belly and the base are the most important parts. These parts determine the ease of use 
and control consumer satisfaction. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
“Functional pottery is made for people to use and many potters feel that the pot isn’t 
complete until it is physically used for its job totally, it should be efficient, easy to 
use, comfortable in the hands, and give pleasure to the user at the same time. One 
should consider how it is to be used and what parts of the human anatomy will be in 
contact with it for optimum satisfaction on all counts.”  
       (Hopper,2000, p.103) 
 
Consumer satisfaction is a hallmark of a good product. One should consider how it 
should be used and what parts of the human anatomy will be touched and contacted 
by it and it must offer optimum satisfaction. In order to manufacture a proper 
product, pottery manufactures and designers should consider the anatomy of the 
product, and also the consumers who use these products. For the design efficiency 
and the functional value of a Ceramic product, physical and psychological comfort 
cannot be neglected as they are the main requirements of it.  
 
 
Figure 2.4: Handling a Clay Pot (a-b) 
 
(a
 
(b) 
 29 
2.4 Principles and Elements of Design 
Design principles and elements can be identified as a basic tenet of a design product. 
There are many basic concepts that underlay the field of design. They are often 
categorized differently depending on philosophy or teaching method. The theory of 
design can be divided in to two categories; such as design principles and design 
elements. Genevese (2005) described, it can be grouped all of the basic tenets of 
design in to two categories: such as principles and elements of design.  
 
Design principles and design elements were created by combining different elements. 
These are the main components of a product. Design principles and elements vary 
from product to product accordance with their product features and behaviors.  It can 
be stated as a law behind the product design. 
“Principles of design are the laws of designing anything! In other words, to have a 
good design, you should consider these principles for the best design possible. 
Elements of design on the other hand are things that are involved within making a 
design. The major difference between principles and elements is that principles are 
rules you have to follow and elements are things that will help you complete those 
rules for the best project outcome”.  
(Jiskha Homework,2011) 
 
Design principles and design elements have become main considerations or main 
considerable points of every product. They are essential to achieve a good product 
with maximum quality. 
 
2.5 Classification of Design Principles and Elements 
Design principles and elements can be identified as basic fundamentals of design 
product. Therefore several types of design principles and elements are categorized in 
accordance with their product features. It depends on product category, material and 
variety of usage.  
Considering the design principles and elements, products can be classified in 
different ways. According to Jiskha Homework (2011) Design principles consist of 
seven principles; such as contrast, emphasis, balance, unity, pattern, movement and 
 30 
rhythm.  And design elements also consist of seven elements such as colour, value, 
texture, shape, form, space and line. These can be identified as a law of designing 
any object. Park (2010) explained design principles and elements which are relevant 
to the field of multimedia and production in the following way; Elements of design 
described here are point, line, shape, form, space, colour and texture. And also he 
explained about various design principles, like the balance, proportion, perspective, 
emphasis, movement, pattern, repetition, rhythm, variety, harmony, and unity. These 
elements and principals can be the basic knowledge and analytical frame work for 
the designer. These basic categories are varying, according to the product variability.  
 
Stout (2000) stated that, “everything you can see has a design. When we described 
some object or thing we have to use the words about, lines, shapes, colours, textures, 
and spaces. Line, shape, colour, texture, and space are the basic elements of design. 
The elements of design are important to everyone who works in textiles, and 
clothing, home interiors, wood working, photography, product design etc”. 
Furthermore in according to the Stout (2000) rhythm, proportion, emphasis, balance, 
and unity can be identified as the principles of design. “Design elements can be 
explained as a tool of design something and the principles of design are how we 
organize or use the tools. When designing an art and craft product the relevant design 
elements and principles can be categorized as follows. Line, shape, form, space, 
colour, and texture are the design elements and the principles of design are balance, 
emphasis, movement, pattern, proportion, rhythm, variety and unity etc.” (Idaho 4-
H,2005). 
 
Design principles and elements can be explained in several ways. In the field of 
ceramic, design elements and principles can be used to obtain a high quality product 
with design efficiency. Design is the organized arrangement of one or more elements 
and principles (e.g. shape, forms or texture) for a purpose. The elements and 
principles of design are important to everyone who works in the field of product 
design and industrial design.  
 31 
The variety of design Principles and Elements can be identified in the field of 
product designing. These elements have differences according to product 
characteristics and it can be divided as follows, 
Design Principles - Contrast, Emphasis, Balance, Unity, Pattern, Movement, 
Rhythm, Proportion, Repetition, Variety, Harmony  
Design Elements- Shape, Form, Texture, Colour, Value, Space, Line 
 
2.6 Use of Design Principles and Elements in Ceramic Design 
 
Design Elements, and Design Principals are main aspects of the ceramic product. 
These two factors work together in combination and have an impact on the product 
manufacturing and product usage. It can be clearly seen when examining the 
products. Besides, these factors are important for efficiency of the product and make 
them more comfortable. When considering the relevance of design elements and 
principle in a ceramic product; it can be described as follows. 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Design Elements 
DE 
 
Design Principals 
DP 
Figure 2.5: Basic Design Principles and Elements 
 
Shape 
Form 
Texture 
Value 
 
Space 
Colour /Line 
 
 
Proportion 
Balance 
 
 
 
Pattern/ Repetition 
Variety 
Contrast  
Rhythm 
Harmony 
Unity  
Scale 
Emphasis 
Movement 
Perspective 
Relevance to 
ceramic Product 
 32 
There are several types of design principles and design elements which can be 
identified in the present. Selected design elements and principles have an effect on 
the field of ceramics. Proportion, Scale and balance can be identified as  design 
principles and Shape, Form, Texture, colour and Value can be identified as design 
elements in the filed of ceramic. It will help to improve design value to achieve the 
design efficiency of the product. 
 
2.6.1 Design Principles in Earthenware Ceramic Products 
 
Design principle is an important key factor in a ceramic product. The principles of 
design govern the relationships of the elements used and organize the composition as 
a whole. Successful design incorporates the use of the principles and elements to 
serve the designer's purpose and visual goals. There are no rules for their use. The 
designer's purpose and intent drives the decisions made to achieve harmony between 
the elements.  
 
Design principals can be identified in different ways. It is a necessary substance of 
the ceramic design. Few design principals can be identified as important for ceramic 
products. Proportion and balance are relevant for ceramic product. And also pattern, 
repetition, and variety cannot be identified as associate principles. The following 
sections discuss about the relationship between design principles and earthenware 
products.   
 
2.6.1.1 The Role of the Proportion of Earthenware Product   
Proportion can be identified as a compulsory aspect of the ceramic product. 
Proportion is the first principle of design. It helps to get the whole idea about the 
product, nevertheless to obtain aesthetical pleasing and impression about the product. 
“Proportion refers to the relative size and scale of the various elements in a design” 
(Park, 2010).  
 
 33 
Stout (2000) stated that, Proportion refers to the relationship between one part of a 
design and another part or to the whole design. It is a comparison of sizes, shapes, 
and quantities. Proportion can be explained in several ways; “Proportion is the first 
principal of design. Proportion is the relationship of objects in space or the 
relationship of one part to another or the whole. The Greeks discovered many of the 
desirable rations of proportion; they discovered that a pleasing ratio is 2:3. This ratio 
is often called the golden rectangle. Another discovery by the Greek is that the 
division of a line between one-half and one third its length is the most desirable. 
They called this the golden mean. The golden mean is most often applied when 
planning the height for a mantel, trying back draperies, hanging pictures, mirrors, or 
wall cones. The least pleasing proportion is the square. The Greeks also discovered 
that odd numbers are more pleasing than even numbers; a group of 3 objects to 3 is 
more pleasing than 2 to 2”(www.uen.org). Golden ratio or Golden proportion is one 
of the standard ratios for designing products. It can be applied for designs and also 
for Architecture and Interior designs. Golden proportion is very much related to the 
ceramic design.  
 
Proportion is a theory that can be used for every product. Every product has specific 
measurements of height, width, and volume. If any product completes these main 
elements it can achieve correct proportions. All proportions are originated with the 
nature. Nature is a good designer or a creator which introduces new theories in 
correct manner.  
 
In domestic usage products, proportion can be identified as a main feature, which is 
very useful in handling of the product. Proportion of products like tea cups, mugs, 
plates, jars and cooking pots etc. have to be paid more attention in the manufacturing 
process.  
 
 
 
 34 
2.6.1.2  The Role of the Balance of Earthenware Products  
 
Balance is the state of equality when dealing with visual weight. Visual weight gives 
the first impression of the product. Visual balance is important for ceramic products. 
It can be enhanced using decorations. Glaze method or decoration method will help 
to control the visual balance. Objects of different sizes, shapes, and colours are used 
for the visual balance. Product balance is important for ceramic products. Because 
most of the ceramic products are used by one’s hand, so that there should be specific 
weights and sizes. Balance can be identified as Symmetrical balance and 
Asymmetrical balance.  
Most of the earthenware products are manufactured under the technical guidance to 
achieve the perfect balance. Firing cycle is one of the important facts to obtain 
correct balance of the product. Firing is a long technical process, which goes through 
several stages in order to get the proper shape and the form of the product. Balance 
depends on the shape and form of the product and it has an effect on the product 
stability. Center of gravity, foot/base types, shape of the body are important factors 
to keep the balance of the product. Balance gives a feeling of stability. Earthenware 
product has a radial balance and asymmetrical balance. Stout (2000) stated that; 
“designs that have a radial balance have a center points. Most of the earthenware 
product has a center points because most of product were created using with a potters 
wheel. All of cooking vessels have a radial balance. Asymmetrical balance creates a 
feeling of equal weight on both sides, even though the sides do not look the same. 
Asymmetrical designs also are called informal designs because they suggest 
movement and spontaneity”.  
 
 
 
 
Figure 2.6: Structural Balance of Cooking Pots (a , b ) 
 
a b 
 35 
Product balance and base shapes have an effect on product stability. Earthenware 
product has different base shapes. Most of the cooking utensils have rounded base, 
which needs a “Daranuwa” to achieve balance on a flat surface (See Section 3.7.5- 
use of “Daranuwa”) and storage utensils have flat bases.  “Guruleththuwa” is a 
good example for a flat base. The shape of the base has a good strength to hold big 
volume of water and it helps to turn object to pour water; though storage is the main 
purpose of this shape. The shapes of the base are designed in order to serve the 
purpose and functionality of a product. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Round base – a/b 
Flat base – b/d/e/f 
 
Source: (Shepard, 1974,p.237) 
Figure 2.7: Vessel Stability 
 36 
Figure 2.7 illustrates about the variation of base shapes. A designer ware handle is 
also used to obtain the product balance and a round base surface variety of foot types 
are used to fulfill the product balance. Product balance directly affects the usage and 
manufacturing clay cooking pots, because it is an important design principle in the 
field of ceramic design. 
 
2.6.2 Design Elements in Earthenware Ceramic Products 
 
Design elements are essential factors of the ceramic design.  These elements are 
common for all product designs and also in the field of architecture. It is difficult to 
identify them separately, because all elements are combined with each other. Also It 
is a common theory for the ceramic design, as it includes more than one element. 
Shape, Form, Texture, and value are related design elements for a ceramic product. 
The following sections discuss about the relationship between design elements and 
earthenware products.  
 
2.6.2.1  The Role of the Shape of Earthenware Product  
 
Shape and form are the two main characteristics of ceramic products and they 
combine with each other. In this section it will be discussed separately but both are 
interrelated. Shape creates a form and form is developed by following the function.  
A shape can be defined as an area that stands out from the space next to or around it, 
due to a defined or implied boundary. Shapes can also show perspective by 
overlapping. Shape can be identified as the first impression, first appearance or 
identification of the product. It enhances first feeling of the product and form can be 
considered as second identification. Stout (2000) explained that, Shapes are made by 
connecting lines, circles, square, triangle, and freeform are words used to identify 
shapes. When describing basic shapes, it can be a one shape or a combination of 
many shapes. Line creates two dimensional or flat shapes. When shapes are three 
dimensional, it can be called as a form.  
 
 37 
According to the Park (2010) there are two shapes and it is shown in the picture 
(Figure 2.8). The space around the shape is a negative space. It is important to 
consider the negative space as the positive shapes are shown in the picture. The 
positive spaces enhance the reaction and the effect of the negative space. When 
ceramic object becomes positive, the surrounding area or the background becomes a 
negative space. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
Background helps to promote the shape and form of the object, decorations and 
colours. When displaying the objects these facts are really important to enhance the 
product quality.  
 
All alone or in combination with other shapes or lines, they can convey universal 
meaning and also guide the eye or organize information. According to kyrnin (2011), 
stated that there are three basic types of shapes: 
Geometric 
Natural 
Abstract 
All designs are created according to those three basic types of shapes. All shapes are 
inspired by nature.  
Geometric shapes are structured, often symmetrical   shapes. These include shapes of 
squares, circles, triangles, diamond and rectangles, and also octagons, hexagons, and 
cones. Geometric shapes are rarely used in the ceramic design, due to the technical 
Negative Space 
Positive Shape 
Figure 2.8: Positive Shape and Negative Space of product 
 
 38 
and manufacturing limitations. There is a trend to use of abstract shapes for ceramic 
designs. Flower vases, ornaments, tableware items, tea sets are some of them.  
 
Natural shapes are found in nature or they can be manmade shapes. Natural shapes 
are often irregular and fluid. Most of the earthenware cooking pots are developed 
using natural shapes. A drop of water provided inspiration for the shape of a goblet. 
As it has structured features, it is used as a storage object. Clay pots like “Muttiya” , 
“ Hattiya” which are used as food storage and transport (water) objects are also 
further developments of the same inspiration. The shape of a pot was developed 
according to the product functionality. Practical usages are key factors to produce 
perfect products. Most of the clay products follow basic theories to achieve 
functionality. An examples “Kalaya” has a good quality for practical usage. It is an 
artistic object combined with functionality which is made to suit the women’s hip. 
“Kalaya” with a long neck is more suitable for the hip. It has got the shape of a 
water drop; it has a center of gravity and also the volume. These concepts have 
enhanced the water pot. Natural shapes have been developed on basic theories to 
survive external reactions.     
 
 
Basic Vessel shapes  
 
Several types of clay pots can be identified in the world. The shapes and forms have 
different characteristics according to their usage. According to their shape and forms 
there are three types of vessel types as, cylinder shape, flat shape and sphere shapes. 
Sometimes they are merged together to create compound shapes.   
 
 “Pottery vessels are generally built using three basic container forms (cylinder, Flat, 
sphere) Although there are sculptural-style vessels that do not follow this pattern, 
nearly all pottery vessels do use the basic forms, either alone or in combination. 
When the basic forms are used together, the pot also has transitions from one shape 
to the next. Understanding these basic forms and transitional styles helps the potter 
create aesthetically pleasing pottery”. 
(Peterson,2011) 
 39 
 
 
 
The Cylinder        The Flat Shape 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 2.11: Development of  Flat 
Shape on the Wheel 
  h  Wh l 
a b 
Figure 2.10: Development of Cylinder 
Shape on the Wheel 
   
Figure 2.9: Basic shapes of  Clay Vessels 
Figure 2.12: Development of Spherical Shape on the Wheel 
 
Figure 2.13: Use of Spherical for Vessels (a , b) 
 40 
Shape identification is an important aspect of the ceramic design. Shapes give a basic 
idea of the product and shape is gradually converted in to a product. Shape is focused 
to gain a good functional value of the product. Sometimes shapes can not be 
developed according to consumers wish; it has much more technical and material 
limitations. Shapes have different meanings. According to Jirousek (1995) “Three 
dimensional shapes have an expressive vocabulary similar to that of line .this 
obviously follows, since line is always implied by the contours of shapes. For 
example, rectilinear shape suggests stability. Angular shapes placed diagonally in 
relation to gravity suggest instability and shapes that exhibit softly curving surfaces 
suggest quiet, comfort, and sensuality”. In general square shape denotes honesty and 
stability. Squares are familiar, trusted shapes and shapes of circles suggest infinity 
and it gives a feeling of protection. As an example most of the domestic products 
basically get circular shapes and finally they take a spherical form. Therefore 
cooking pots contain of a feeling of protection and infinity.  In general, it can be 
described as shape has an individual meaning and it develops the form and creates a 
new product. Further, the meaning of the shape helps to develop an effective and 
efficiency product to the consumer. 
 
2.6.2.2 The Role of the Form of Earthenware Products  
 
Form is a development of the shape. It has a volume, which can be measured, from 
top to bottom (height), side to side (width), and from back to front (depth). The three 
dimensional shape and space of an object are the basic requirements of architecture 
and the most designed objects.  
  
Idaho 4-H (2005) stated that, “Form is three dimensional shapes, expressing length, 
width, and depth. Balls, cylinders, boxes and triangles are forms”. Stout (2000) 
described, that “when shapes are three dimensional, we call them forms. A circle is a 
shape; a ball is a form. A square is a shape; a cube is a form. A drawing is a flat 
shape; a sculpture is a three- dimensional form. Ceramic vessels are a three 
dimensional form. It has a volume and mass”. Park (2010), explained as “Form 
 41 
describes volume and mass, or the three dimensional aspects of objects that take up 
space. ( Shape is two-dimensional) Forms can and should be viewed from any 
angles. When you hold a baseball, should or small sculpture, you are aware of their 
curves, angles, indentations, extensions, and edges- their forms” (p.4). 
 
Besides the curves, angles of the product are also an important aspect in the form of a 
product. It has a rhythmical value and also an aesthetical value. Form can be 
described as one of the characteristics of the object. It helps to identify the quality of 
the product also. Form of a product is important in the process of manufacturing and 
in the usage.  
 
Several types of materials are used to produce clay cooking pots. Compared to other 
materials like metal, aluminum, brass and stainless steels, clay is a very flexible 
material to convert in to three dimensional forms. Clay pots are interpreting form of 
the metal pot. Metal has a quality of overcoming manufacturing difficulties in 
different shapes and forms than the clay. When comparing metal and clay, it shows 
that metal has limited shapes, easy to clean and wash. Clay is flexible and some 
products are created to interpret the metal form.  But all designs cannot be 
reproduced out of clay, as it also has material limitations. Although in the present 
“Nebiliya”, “Koraha”, “Kalaya” are made from metal. Cleaning these products are 
also difficult as their outer surface are very smooth, they are difficult to handle easily 
due to the heaviness and other disadvantages. Brass / metal “Nebiliya” is difficult to 
handle because of their heaviness and smoothness of the outside surface. Sometimes 
oxides would be formed on the metal surface. Presently most of the clay products try 
to resemble the metal forms and shapes, (“Thathchi”, “Kalderama”) yet there are 
restrictions due to the material qualities. Metal and brass products are developed with 
rigid –straight lines, but clay product has smooth and curved shapes. The freshness 
and the smoothness of the clay cannot be found on metal, aluminum or stainless 
steel. There is a continuity of design and forms. Most of the products have their 
cultural identity which can be identified through material usage, shape and form of 
 42 
the products.  Basically shape and form can be identified as natural, arithmetical or 
synthesis. In a product, shapes and forms are developed to cater to  functional needs.  
 
2.6.2.3  The Role of the Texture of Earthenware Products 
 
Texture is a surface condition of the product and it perceived surface quality. Surface 
quality is an essential part of the product. Texture can be identified in different ways, 
according to Idaho 4-H (2005), “Texture is the surface quality that can be seen and 
felt. Textures can be rough or smooth, soft or hard. Textures do not always feel the 
way they look” (p.2). Stout (2000) stated that “Texture is the surface quality of an 
item. It is how something feels when touched, or looks like it would feel it touched. 
Sandpaper is rough. Velvet is a smooth. A drawing of a tree stump could show rough 
outer bark and a smooth inner surface” (p.2).  
Two types of textures can be identified in a ceramic piece:  
Tactile / Real texture       
Implied/perceptual /visual texture  
 
The way the surface of an object is actually felt is known as tactile texture or real 
texture. This includes sandpaper, cotton balls, tree bark, clay surface, etc. Implied 
texture is the surface appearance of an object in the way that it is felt. The texture 
may look rough, fizzy, gritty, but cannot actually be felt. In ceramic there are two 
types of textures which enhance functional and aesthetical value. The surface quality 
is an important feature in a ceramic piece. Not only the inner surface but also the 
outer surface is important for the ceramic product. A smooth shiny surface can be 
obtained on a glazed surface. If it is not glazed it can be felt as rough because of the 
quality of the clay body. Non glaze body can be identified as a tactile or real texture 
and glazed surface can be identified as an implied or visual texture. The visual 
texture is not a real texture, as it is an effect of a quality of glazed, and it cannot be 
felt.  
 
 43 
As mentioned above, surface quality is also an essential part of the clay product. it is 
understood that the inner surface and the outer surface have an effect on product 
functionality. Most of the earthenware and terracotta products are created with more 
texture effect. Earthenware cooking pots obtain a surface texture from the quality of 
the clay (size of the clay particles). The exterior surface texture is important to 
increase the quality of heat absorption. “Exterior texture improves a vessel’s heating 
effectiveness by increasing the exterior surface area and textured exterior surface 
also improve a pot’s resistance to thermal crack”(Skibo,Walker & 
Nielsen,1995,p.83). 
 
Clay ware products can be identified as tactile texture, because clay ware texture 
feels to the hand. Smooth and rough surfaces can be developed from the clay 
material. Rough surface feel unfinished quality but it is a quality of physical 
component of the body.  It helps to add porous quality and rough quality to the body. 
It is an advantage of clay ware (specially in earthenware) products. (Skibo,Walker & 
Nielsen,1995,p.83) stated that “But texturing does beneficially impact several other 
performance characteristic of cooking pots. In more recent replication experiments 
spalls formed on the smooth, un textured exterior surface of pots subjected to 
simulated cooking. This was caused by vaporized water passing through the vessel 
wall. Vessels with deeply textured exterior surfaces did not spall because the rough 
exterior, with its greater surface area, provided more escape routes for steam as it 
passed through the exterior surface. If  the potter’s intent it to create a vessel that 
does not spall during cooking. One good solution is to leave it unsmoothed or to 
apply some form of exterior texturing”. Moreover texture is an essential quality for 
the clay cooking pots. It helps for the purpose of boiling, steaming, and frying foods.  
Earthenware clay body has a textured effect because of the particle size. If there are 
small particles, the surface gets a smooth surface. In certain stages texture becomes 
the decoration or decoration becomes the texture.    
 
Ceramic texture can also be identified as a natural and artificial texture. Natural 
texture is produced from the clay quality and artificial texture is a result of manual 
 44 
work. The textures are created as a result of engraving and emboss technique which 
can be categorized under the artificial textures. Embossed and engrave techniques are 
types of artificial texture.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Functionality is an important feature of the product. Most of the clay products have 
textured surface to achieve grip for easy handling. A pot like “Gas Muttiya” is 
designed with outer texture with an engraving method, to have its functionality. 
There are several types of textured effects in the “Gas Muttiya” 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
“Nebiliya” and “Koraha” are another example for use tactile surfaces. It used 
engraving technique for decoration and also to obtain product functionality. The 
textured surface effected to achieve design efficiency of the object (See Section 
3.6.2.1 & 3.6.2.2). “Nebiliya” has the textured effect on the inner surface and also 
has on the outer surface for functional purposes.  The outer texture helps to create a 
grip between the thumb and clay surface when sifting the sand and grit from rice. 
Interior surface can be used for cleaning and smashing yams. “Koraha” is also an 
Figure 2.14: Section of Embossed and Engraved Method   
E m b o s s e d    T e c h n i q u e s E n g r a v e d   T e c h n i q u e s 
Figure 2.15: Use Engraving method for  
“Nebiliya”- Tactile Texture 
 45 
example for a tactile texture object. The surface texture is used for functional 
purposes.  
 
Implied texture can be created on a clay body by applying glazes. Glaze like a glass 
coat and it can be applied on top of the clay body. It helps to give a shiny effect to 
the surface and reduce the water absorption. The variety of texture effect can be 
achieved by the glaze surface but it cannot be touched as it is only to get a visual 
impression.  Texture is an important feature for the ceramic products.  
 
 
 
2.6.2.4 The Role of the Value of Earthenware Products 
 
Value is the expressed quality of a product. It depends on the physical properties, 
structural properties and quality of the end product. It helps to express the product 
quality and to get the consumer’s attraction. To have a clear and correct opinion of 
the product it is important the way of arranging, displaying and packing of products 
in a fascinating background.  
 
The value of ceramic products can be classified as social value, cultural value, 
aesthetic value, and physical value. Ceramic products are more of eco-friendly and 
good for health. Colour, contrast, dark and light, decorations and attraction are 
associated aesthetical values of the product. Common value of the product is 
explained as; “Value is an element of art that refers to the relationship between light 
and dark on a surface or object and also helps with Form. It gives objects depth and 
perception”(www.wikipedia.com).  
 
A quality of heating/ heat absorption, effect of cooling, water absorption (porosity), 
product weight and quality of thermal shock resistance are qualities of physical value 
of the ceramic product. Earthenware vessels have a special quality of giving good 
taste to food when they are cooked in them. That taste cannot be obtained using the 
 46 
products manufactured with other materials. It is an advantage of the clay body. It 
can be described as a cultural value of the product. Therefore value is an important 
characteristic of the product.  
 
Financial value is important for consumers; it depends on the quality of the product 
such as product size, structural appearance and it functionality. Prices of ceramic 
products cannot simply be ignored as price is really important when buying a 
product.  In present, people try to buy quality products with concerning its 
functionality and efficiency with less concerning its price. Price of a clay product is 
less than the other cooking utensils made from other materials in the market. 
 
Design principles are engaged in recreation in design. Sometimes all principles are 
used together and also they can be used separately. It depends on the product and its 
usage. However design principles and elements are basic fundamental of the design 
product.  
 
 
2.7 Structure of Clay Vessels  
 
Ceramic can be explained as an interesting, useful material in the world. 
Manufacturing ceramic product is a long process, which has diverse steps. In its 
appearance a clay pot looks like a simple object, but it is completed with advanced 
structural elements. Structural elements are important factors of clay vessels. Clay 
cooking pots can be used for several purposes. Structure of a clay pot consists of 
three main parts, Orifice, Body, and Base. These are main components of a vessels’ 
structure. Variety of orifices, bodies and bases differ from vessel to vessel. It is 
defined by the usage and purpose of the pot.  
 
Orifices (Rim) - Lips types 
Body (Belly) - Body shapes and forms 
Base    (Foot) - Foot types 
 47 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The body of a vessel is identified as a belly, but generally it is known as the body. 
Area of a body can be defined as the area between the orifice and the base. It 
includes the maximum diameter of the pot (m.d.). It helps to generate volume of the 
pot. The maximum diameter of a vessel is found in the belly or body.  
 
 “The body of a vessel may be defined as the potion between the orifice and base that 
includes the maximum diameter of the vessel or the region of generate enclosed 
volume”. 
(Rice , 1987, p.212) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
a 
Figure 2.16: Structure of a Clay Vessel   
Orifice 
Base 
Body 
Upper part of a 
 
Lower part of a 
 
m.d
 
 48 
Vessels take different shapes according to the changes of orifice, belly and base.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
a – Divisions of a simple vessel 
b / d – Vessel body 
e / h – Neck, collar, and throat 
i / j – Base and body on composite form 
m.d. = Maximum diameter  
 
 
Source (Rice , 1987, p.213) 
Figure 2.17: Major Subdivisions of Pottery Vessel 
 
   
 49 
According to the Rice (1987) theory of shapes is described as follows, “The orifice, 
other mouth opening, of a vessel is subjected to a great deal of elaboration, mush of 
which is functional one is most important characteristics is its relation to the 
maximum diameter of the vessel. If it is equal to or greater than the maximum 
diameter, a, c. (Figure 2:16 & 2:17) it is described as an unrestricted orifice. If it is 
less than the maximum diameter, it is called the restricted orifice. On a restricted 
form, with the maximum diameter below the orifice of the vessel, the region between 
the point of maximum diameter and the orifice or neck is the shoulder or upper body 
of the vessel diameter. Sometimes the point of the maximum diameter alone may be 
called the shoulder. The area between the points of maximum diameter at the base is 
the lower body” (p.213).   
 
The important characteristic of the orifice is the relationship with the maximum 
diameter of the vessel. If the orifice is greater or equal to the maximum diameter of 
the vessel it can be described as an ‘Unrestricted Orifice’. If it is less than the 
maximum diameter, it can be identified as a ‘Restricted orifice’. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Restricted vessel provides the purpose of storage and it is preventive and safe. 
Restricted orifices are defined as having a diameter less than maximum vessel 
diameter. Unrestricted orifice has maximum vessel diameter. A neck provides 
prevention of a liquid from slopping. The unrestricted vessel is suited for all 
Restricted Shapes Un - Restricted Shapes 
Figure 2.18: Restricted and Unrestricted Shapes 
   
 51 
purposes that require the use of the hands inside the vessel and also for display or 
drying of content.  
 
Several types of unrestricted and restricted clay cooking pots are used for domestic 
purposes. By using the maximum diameter of the product, the body can be divided in 
to two parts as, upper part and the lower part. The upper part of the vessel consists of 
an orifice (lip, collar, and rim) neck and a part of body. The upper part of the vessel 
helps to cover the object and hang the object. The lower part of the body consists of a 
part of belly (body), and a base or foot. It helps to prepare curries and to keep the 
product stably. Most of earthenware cooking utensils have a round base and it needs 
a supportive element to keep it steady.  
 
Most of the earthenware cooking pots have unrestricted orifices. From the bottom to 
belly of a cooking pot has a restricted form and gradually it takes an unrestricted 
shape when goes up to orifice area. It helps to prevent the spilling of gravy foods 
when cooking and transporting.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Unrestricted orifices provide enough surface area to keep or hang the lid or other 
container on top of the pot. If it is an unrestricted orifice it provides wide open orifice 
Figure 2.19:  Earthenware Cooking Pot 
Orifice 
Restricted  
Un restricted  
Base 
Body 
Restricted  
Un restricted  
 52 
it did not provide safety, and easy to cool the foods. The angles of the orifices, body 
angles are changed according to the purpose of the product.  
 
2.7.1 Structure of the Clay Pots and its Importance  
 
Orifice, body and base are the main elements of a vessel. They have individual 
responsibilities and characteristics.  
 
2.7.1.1 Orifice of the Vessel 
 
The edge or margin of the vessel orifice is identified as the rim or lip of the vessel. It 
is the end point of the vessel or open upper edge of the pot. Lip is an important part 
in cooking pots. There are several types of orifices that can be identified from the 
clay cooking pots. It is an important part of the entire body, which helps to identify 
the finish and the quality of the product. The lip or rim of the vessel decides the 
restricted or unrestricted quality of the vessel.  
“The orifice or examples, whether restricted, unrestricted, neck or collared may be 
described in terms of two secondary from characteristics, the lip and the rim. These 
two terms are often used interchangeably, because the point where one ended and the 
other begins is not always clear. The lip it self is easy to identify, beginning the edge 
or margin of mouth of the vessel, it may also be described as the edge of the rim of 
the vessel” 
(Rice, 1987, p.214) 
 
Not all vessels have simple contour however, often they have complex shapes consist 
with curves and angles. Specially an orifice or rim is known as a major part of a 
vessel. Orifice is a strengthening part or a modifier part of a vessel. It can be used for 
pouring, lifting, retaining liquids or of affording a decorative effect to carry the 
object, and important for staking the object. The sharp orifice is not suitable for 
cooking pots, because it is easy to damage and difficult to use. “Sharp openings are 
uncomfortable for drinking, and elaborate ones will make your beaker into a dribble 
glass. If the function is to hold flowers or some other object, think of how the rim 
area will help the viewer's eye makes the transition from the pot to the object it is 
holding”. 
 53 
(Peterson,2011) 
Orifice is one of the functional areas of a product and it helps for staking the objects. 
Round or flat orifice surface helps for functional usage and also is used as a 
decorative area. The rim may be means of strengthening the orifice, of modifying 
form for functional purposes such as pouring, lifting and retaining liquids and 
affording a decorative effect. Several types of rim profiles are used for pottery 
manufacturing. The lip is finished by hand, the position of the thumb and fingers will 
determine whether it is rounded, tapered or squares. It helps to cater to the function. 
Orifice can be raised and extended up to the neck or collar. It serves the purpose of 
the body well. 
 
Four basic types of orifices can be identified as Interior, Exterior, Interior and 
Exterior and Indeterminate. It depends on the shape and angle of the clay piece. 
Orifice is thicker than the body (wall thickness). It is an advantage for the usage of 
product.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
a       b        c 
Figure 2.22: Point of Greatest Thickness 
a. Lip 
 
b. Low 
 
c. Medial 
a. Abrupt 
 
b. Gradual 
a        b 
Figure 2.21: Junction of Thickened Part with Wall 
a. Interior 
 
b. Exterior 
 
c. Interior and Exterior 
 
d. Indeterminate 
  a        b          c           d   
Figure 2.20: Position of Thickening with Relation     to 
Vessel Wall 
 54 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Source (Shepard.,1980,p.216) 
Lip or orifice is an important part of clay pots; it helps for hanging or carrying the 
object. It is a useful part of the body structure too. Grip is created as a result of shape 
or angle of the lip collar. Some products have necks, but clay cooking pots do not 
have necks. The neck of the pot, if there is one, also needs to follow its function. 
Certain necks are impractical for the purpose of storage, or for any other purpose that 
requires a hand to be able to reach its bottom. “Guruleththuwa” or goblet is a good 
example for the object which consisted with long neck . 
The neck should also enhance the feeling you want to impart to your audience. For 
example, long thin necks tend to "read" as elegant, refined, and sometimes as prissy. 
Shorter, stout necks often give the user the feeling of sturdiness, stability, and 
strength. 
 
  a          b 
Figure 2.23: Ratio of Rim Thickness 
to Wall Thickness 
  a         b 
Figure 2.24: Relative Length of   
Thickened Part 
a        b           c             d             e 
Figure  2.25: Shape of Thickened Part 
 55 
 
2.7.1.2 Body of the Vessel  
 
As mentioned above, the body of the clay pot can be identified as upper body and 
lower body. It is also named as a belly. The area between the point of maximum 
diameter and the orifice is identified as the upper body. The area between the 
maximum diameter and the base is identified as the lower body (See Figure 2.16) 
Upper part and the lower part of a body are important in body structure.  
“The widest outwardly or convexly swelling area of a pot, especially if it is centered 
in the lower half of the form, is known as its belly. The belly, waist, and shoulder of 
a pot, taken together, are often known as the body of the pot”. 
(Peterson,2011) 
 
There are several types of bodies which have been produced in pottery 
manufacturing. Most clay pots get a round body.  The reason for that is most of the 
vessels are made out with pottery wheel. The shapes of body vary from product to 
product.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Figure 2.26: Variety of Body Shapes of Clay Cooking Pots 
a 
c 
b 
 56 
Varieties of body shapes can be found among the clay cooking pots in Sri Lanka. 
The body shapes depend on the purpose of the product and the way of cooking 
methods.  
2.7.1.3  Base of the Vessel 
 
The third region of the vessel is the base; sometimes it is called the foot. The 
base is underside of a vessel, touching the surface it rests on during normal use. 
There are two types of foots or bases which can be defined in a vessel, they are flat 
base and round base. Flat base is stable, and well fixed in to the basement. 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
But curve base needs some foot basement. Most of the cooking pots have a round 
base. It needs some basement to keep it stable on the floor. “Daranuwa” is used as a 
supportive element to keep stability (See Section 3.7.5). Some vessels have small 
foot, like a collar. Pottery shape looks simple but it is combined with variety of 
shapes or combination of shapes. They can give a pot a strong tactile quality making 
it more comfortable in the hand.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 2.27: Flat Bases  
Figure 2.28: Round Bases ( a / b ) 
a 
b 
a b 
 57 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Clay cooking pot has a quality of heat absorption and heat transferring because it has 
a round base. When there is a foot for a cooking pot it cannot be kept on a hearth. It 
can be used as a cup, a plate or a lid. The base of a product is important for the 
stability and staking of the product. It is based on manufacturing and technical 
matters of the product. Base is a structure or a basement of the whole object. In a 
wheel thrown product basement is finished in the end of the product cycle.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 2.29: Product Stability  
Figure 2.30: Base with a Foot 
Figure 2.31: Staking of Clay Pots 
 58 
These three basic elements are important for the products as the product structure is 
constructed according to these elements. Thus the more attention has to be paid to 
orifice, body and base in order to obtain an aesthetically and functional pleasing 
product. 
 
2.8  Summary 
 
This chapter has discussed about the design efficiency and functional use of ceramic 
products. It has briefly explained the relationship between physical and 
psychological comfort and how they can be increased by overcoming the certain 
drawbacks.  
 
It has also included the basic theories of a ceramic product such as design principles 
and design elements as they have been identified as the main concerns in this 
industry. All these factors have been based on domestic earthenware cooking pots. 
The structure of the clay vessels and the importance of basic elements of the clay 
vessels (orifice, body and base) have been vividly described and explained in this 
chapter. Further it has also included the theory of a clay vessel, which has to be 
constantly used for the efficiency for the functional usage.  
 
In next chapter origin of the domestic earthenware culinary products in Sri Lanka 
will be discussed taking the cooking pot “Hattiya” as a sample object. There the 
“Hattiya” and also the lid of it will be described vividly; considering all the 
important aspects of the products.   
 
 
 
 59 
 
Chapter Three 
 
CERAMIC VARIETIES AND IMPORTANCE OF 
EARTHENWARE CULINARY PRODUCTS 
 
3.0 Introduction 
 
Ceramic can be identified as a product which is made of clay by man. Ceramic has a 
long history. Several types of ceramic varieties can be identified according to their 
material compositions and firing conditions. Ceramic products can be used for 
several purposes and are mostly used for the cooking purpose. This chapter will 
describe ceramic varieties, origin of the clay cooking pots, and product categories 
according to the usage and their purposes in detail. Special reference has been made 
on earthenware culinary product concerning the factors like product structure, usage 
and functionality. “Hattiya” and lid are taken as sample objects for further 
discussions.   
 
3.1 Evolution of ceramic ware in Sri Lanka  
 
Man is a distinctive creation of nature. He has marvelous talents for creativity. They 
try out several materials to create new designs. When people became modern, their 
needs also got changed and complicated. They tried to find new techniques and new 
objects for a sophisticated life style. Most of the objects were produced considering 
functional usage and design aspects. Therefore new methods and new technologies 
were adapted to suit their life style. This was done by using their creative abilities 
and talents. New ways for producing objects for daily needs were developed through 
many experiments and experiences. As a result of their numerous experiments clay 
was identified as a quality and a flexible material which can be used to produce these 
objects. 
 60 
The origin of the clay is known from the beginning of the earth and it was there 
during pre history of man as a useful material. It had been used as a material to make 
objects because of its’ good plasticity.  
“The art of ceramics is one of the oldest known, dating to prehistoric times. Clay is a 
special kind of earth, found all over the world that is easily worked when moist, but 
can be hardened and made waterproof by exposure to heat. The earliest forms of 
construction were pinched that is, the clay is formed with the fingers to the desired 
shape” 
(Jirousek, 1995, p.1) 
  
In the past there were several legends on invention of pottery. During the wet 
season man may have seen the foot print of animals in muddy places. Water was left 
in that foot print, even in the dry season. Most of the objects were discarded; some 
were burned in a wild fire during the dry season. During the rainy season people had 
seen that water gets collected in those objects. People learnt that clay can be 
hardened using fire. It was the invention of the pottery industry in the world. Clay is 
an available material on the earth, which is soft and flexible to the hand, when hold a 
lump of it. When it is pinched and pressed it takes shape; almost by it self. This piece 
of earth gets life of its own when you touch it with fingers. It changes the behaviors 
when mixed with water and fire. Using their experience, people tried to make 
different objects out of clay. Most of the designs were simple and creative. 
Functionality was the main aspect of the products which were designed by people. 
“One is that most clay is plastic; it can be shaped and formed and will retain that 
from when dried. Another principle is that fire hardens clay. A third is that adding 
various substances to clay can improve its properties and usefulness” 
(Rice 1987, p.8) 
 
In order to understand the chronology of the local pottery production and usage, 
there are three areas such as the literary sources, archeological remains and the 
current usage of the prevailing tradition which can be explored. “As a result of the 
archeological investigation carried out in the country it has been reported that the 
pottery chronology from 900 BCE up to the present”. (De Silva & Dissanayake , 
2008,p.34) . (Somadewa, 2006) indicate a continuity of the pottery using cultural 
occupation of the area from 900 BCE to 1400 CE.  
 61 
Pottery industry was established as an occupation in several places around Sri Lanka 
villages like Ranchagama in Rathnapura , Dorawaka Kanda in Kegalle are famous 
for  clay products. The evidences have proved that most people had been engaged in 
pottery industry. According to the excavator; the first evidence of Sri Lanka crude 
earthenware (Red-Brown ware) association with stone tools (De Silva & 
Dissanayake, 2008, p.34) can be identified the origin of the local earthenware goes 
reverse towards period of hunter gathers of the Sri Lanka. 
 
Before using clay objects people used different types of natural containers to fulfill 
their needs. “Labu Kettaya”, “Kolapatha”, “Nelum kolaya” “Polkatuwa”, animal 
skins, animal shells, and tree husks are some of them. People tried to make new 
utensils by doing experiments and using different types of materials. It was a case of 
trial and error. Natural resources could not fulfill their daily requirements. For 
example, they needed storage facilities to gather and to prepare foods. Clay was 
identified as a material to create utensils and objects. At the beginning people used 
less sophisticated pots to cater to their needs. “Vedda makes very rough pots” 
(Seligmann & Seligmann,1993, p.323). These pots has a small unfinished orifice, the 
special thing of it is they used a loop for hanging the pots. These were used to collect 
honey.   They used simple decorations to make the product attractive.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.3: Development stage of “Muttiya” 
Figure 3.1: Bowl- without Orifice 
Figure 3.2: Development stage of “Hattiya” 
Added small 
Orifice  
 62 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Source: (Seligmann &  Seligmann ,1993 p.328) 
 
At the beginning, the designs were in a primary level as they only wanted to fulfill 
their basic requirements. Later on, aesthetic values also were considered in the 
industry. This led to new experiments and innovations widening the scope for 
multidisciplinary usage.  
 
“The potter served the people and performed an important function in all period of 
the evolution of Sri Lankan society. Starting from the pre-historic time the use of 
pottery has been attested in the earliest stage of the appearance of our ancestors 
thousands of years before recorded history. Along with implements of hunting and 
food gathering earthenware had been used for storing, cooking and eating purposes” 
(Tilakasiri, 1994,p.46) 
Arrival of the clay cooking pots cooking methods, eating methods also changed. 
Wijesekara (1949) explained; “Cooking as it is practiced today was unknown to 
primitive men. Few foods were actually cooked in vessels. The meat may have been 
toasted or broiled over a fire. Roots and yams may have been baked under hot ash. 
The development of the culinary art was the direct result of the knowledge of pottery. 
Pottery helped to maintain a cleaner home. The clay vessels provided a surface of 
artistic expression and a mean of improving food by cooking” (p.29).  
 
In the past people had directly used plastic clay as it was available. Later on they 
identified suitable clay materials with physical components.  Although pottery craft 
was established in Sri Lanka after the arrival of Sangamitta Therani, pottery was 
known as a craft which dates back to prehistoric era. 
Figure 3.4: “Muttiya” with simple Decoration 
 63 
 
 “In 288 B.C. Sangamitta landed in Ceylon with a branch of the sacred Bo tree 
beneath which the Buddha had attained enlightenment. We are told that she brought 
with her eighteen personages of the royal blood, eighteen members of noble families, 
eight of the Brahman and eight of the setthi (trading) caste; and eight each of the 
herdsman, goldsmith and ‘Kalinga’ castes as, well as of weavers and potters”.  
(Coomaraswamy, 1979,p.3) 
 
Other than clay metal, stainless steel and aluminum are used as materials to 
manufacture cooking pots.  Clay pots are influenced from the format of metal 
cooking pots. Therefore people always try to get the same form of the metal cooking 
products for their clay cooking products too. However, this attempt is not very 
successful as the body shape and the appearance of the clay product would be 
different from the metal products due to limitations of the material (clay), technology 
and manufacturing process. Metal form can be used as, wire form, sheet form, and 
casting form. Clay product can get only solid and liquid format as it cannot have 
different thicknesses for the same object using casting processes. The physical 
quality of the clay body is important for cooking purpose than the material like metal 
for its body.   
 
Earlier the product was manufactured to satisfy people’s personal needs, or as a 
service, but with the passage of time objective of the manufacturers have changed 
and it has now become a paid work. The changes of the society, culture, and living 
pattern and people’s needs, have become the concerning factors in this innovation. In 
the Sri Lankan pottery, all the designs, patterns, shapes, usage were changed due to 
the trades, exchangers and inoculation of other countries. Because of that, pottery 
industry had to bear many influences. Because Sri Lanka is in the middle of the 
Indian Ocean, Sri Lanka gets various influences by the trades.  
 
Several types of clay deposits can be identified in Sri Lanka. Ceramics is a word that 
can be used to identify all types of clay compositions. Ceramic is an inorganic non 
metallic material in the world. It has a quality of flexibility and eco friendly.  
Ceramic has a much more limitations and barriers; technical and material limitations 
are mainly effected to product manufacturing.  
 64 
At present several other good clay materials can also be identified. They can be 
classified according to the composition of body mixtures, firing temperature, body 
colour, and body effect. The classification of ceramics differs from one country to 
another.  Five main types of ceramic bodies can be identified in Sri Lanka such as, 
Earthenware, Porcelain, Terracotta, stoneware and porcelain.  
1.  Terracotta  
2.  Earthenware – High Temperature Earthenware –  
(White or ash colour Reddish or Brown colour) 
      Low Temperature Earthenware –  
(Reddish or Brown colour) 
3.  Stoneware - (Reddish or Brown colour , White or Ash colour)  
4.  Porcelain  
5.  Bone China 
 
Most cooking pots are made of earthenware, because the material is available in 
many places. Areas such as Kelaniya, Menikhinna, Paduwasnuwara, Molagoda, 
Biyagama, , Nakandala, Dediyawala, Abagaswewa are famous for earthenware 
products since the early days. Pottery industry was developed in several ways. 
People tried to find new clay minerals. Variety of clay materials, variety of firing 
methods, fuel usage and product range also changed. In present there are several 
types of clay materials and large product ranges can be identified.  
 
3.2. About Earthenware Products 
 
Earthenware is the development stage of a terracotta (750 0C-8500C) body. It can be 
grouped under two types such as, low temperature earthenware and high temperature 
earthenware. Low temperature earthenware is fired at around 7500C -10000C, and 
exact type can be identified from the colour of the body and the strength. Most of the 
culinary items, water containers and pans can be categorized under the low 
temperature products. It has the quality of water absorption (porous body) and also 
less heat resistance. Firing can be done in normal wood kiln. Wood, coconut husks, 
saw dusts are used as fuel material. Tilakasiri (1994) stated that, “Earthenware clay is 
 65 
the common red clay found in nature and mixed with sand and grit, mainly used for 
making bricks and tiles, the subsequent dirt –free layers of clay being used for 
making pottery” (p.48). Earthenware clay which contains stones and sand 
compounds is not good to produce clay cooking pots. It should be a fine and clean 
clay compound.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
According to De Silva & Dissanayake  (2008) “The production of pots and pans in 
Sri Lanka was a well established craft which continued for the last 4000 years, little 
mention was found in literal sources, but archaeological excavation carried out in 
different parts of the island has provided sufficient information to understand the 
quality and the method of production , art, form, typology, distribution, usage, trade 
and technology of production of pottery during different periods of Sri Lankan 
history”(p.12). Five types of wares can be identified in Sri Lanka such as, Black and 
Red Wares (BRW), Red Wares (RW), Mica Coated Ware (MCW), Black Ware 
(BW), Graphited Ware (GW). Red ware is the most common pottery found scattered 
through the country. Red Ware is found in five basic categories. Plain Red Ware is 
most commonly found in normal low fired pottery.  Fine Red Ware well finished fine 
body type. Painted Red Ware painted with different coloured clay before firing, and 
other two are Red Slipped Ware and Polished Red Ware De Silva & Dissanayake 
(2008).  
 
If the surfaces of the pots are decorated with paintings and art works, it is called as a 
painted pottery. Kandyan era is famous for painted pottery and several types of 
Figure 3.5: Earthenware Cooking Pots 
 66 
product categories belong to that era can be identified. More attention had been paid 
to the surface decoration of the product during the process of manufacturing. It was 
decorated with traditional motifs as decorative elements which gives an extra 
attraction to the object. They were very keen to manufacture the product using all 
their creative abilities as they derive pleasure from their work. Above all, the main 
objective of the manufacturing in that era was to present a high quality product to the 
society. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
High temperature earthenware products can be divided in to reddish brown and 
white, according to colour of their body. The brown colour body mixture is a 
development of the low temperature earthenware body. It is heat resistant. It can be 
fired at around 10000C – 12500C in an electric or gas kiln. It does not melt because 
of the content of feldspar and silica. Advanced cooking pots and pans can be 
produced from this material. Strength is the advantage of this body mixture. Any 
glaze can be applied to this body because the body has the features to obtain high 
firing cycle.     
  
White/ Ash coloured earthenware is a well known material in Sri Lanka. It is same as 
porcelain, but it is not expensive as porcelain. As a result most of the designers and 
manufacturers use white colour earthenware for their products. It has the necessary 
Figure 3.6: Decorated Water Pots Figure 3.7:  Decorated Water Pots 
Source: Colombo Museum Collection 
 
Source: Kandy Museum Collection 
 
 67 
strength and glaze which are appropriate for their products. Tea sets, tableware, tiles, 
sanitary ware and ornaments are made out of this material. Clay cooking pots are 
rarely produced using high temperature earthenware clay body in Sri Lanka. The 
production cost will be higher than the cost for normal production processes (low 
temperature firing), and also it needs high firing cycles. This temperature is difficult 
to achieve from the normal wood kiln. Low fired cooking pots are suitable to 
produce clay cooking pots, because it has a quality of water absorption and 
appropriate thickness.   
 
3.3 Variety of Earthenware Products and Product Usage 
 
Earthenware product can be identified as a quality and nature friendly material. The 
varieties of earthenware product cannot be limited to a one area and it has a high 
demand of many areas. As people’s needs and their uses are different, they need a 
range of products cater to their daily requirements. According to the variety of clay 
products, it can be divided in to three main areas. 
1. Domestic ware 
2. Architectural ware 
3. Ritual ware 
 
These products have been categorized according to the usage of the product. Except 
those three categories, the ornamental ware and accessories also can be made out of 
clay material.  
 
3.3.1 Domestic Products 
 
Products which are mostly used in the household come under this category. 
Therefore they have become more familiar kitchen utensils. Earthenware, stoneware 
and porcelain clay are used to produce domestic products. Products used for the 
domestic purposes are clay pots and pans.  
 
 68 
There is a diverse range of domestic products in Sri Lankan households. Earthenware 
products can be considered as one of the main domestic products. Most of culinary 
items can be categorized under the earthenware products. “Hattiya, Muttiya, 
Athiliya, Kundahattiya, Appalla, Koras, Lids” are known as culinary products. These 
products are mainly used in the kitchen or pantry. In the past there were several types 
of cooking utensils which were manufactured to fulfill people’s requirements. The 
main aspect of domestic product is ‘functionality’. 
 
3.3.2 Architectural Products 
 
Tiles, sanitary items, wash basins, and roof tiles are identified as architectural products. 
It has long manufacturing processes and different types of firing methods. It is quite 
different from the process of tableware manufacturing. Earthenware, stoneware and 
porcelain are used as main materials for the architectural products. Durability and the 
strength are the most important physical aspect of architectural products.  
 
3.3.3 Ritual Products /Ecclesiastical Products 
 
The vessels specially use in temples, “Viharas’” and “Devalas’”, can be identified 
as ritual products. It has a limited product range. Such as “Dummala kabala” 
(Incense Holder), “Kothalaya” (spouted vessel), “Pahana”, lamps are used for ritual 
purposes. These products have many conspicuous features. Ritual products are fully 
painted and they have an aesthetical pleasing.  
 
3.4 Functional Aspects of Domestic Earthenware Products  
 
As mentioned above domestic products are generally used in the kitchen. Cooking 
pots and pans can be categorized under the domestic products. Cooking pots can be 
divided in to three main categories according to the purpose of the usage, as these 
products can be used for several purposes. It is one of the special features of 
earthenware culinary products.  
 69 
 
“Ceramic vessels have served a variety of culinary and non-culinary purposes for ten 
thousand years ago, but it is in domestic culinary containers may be used for carrying 
liquids, storing dry substances, or heating contents over a fire. Each use places 
different demand on the vessels, and so its suitability for a particular task on its 
design”. 
(Rice, 1987, p.207) 
 
Either fashionable or plain clay objects would satisfy a wide diversity of human 
needs, both in the past and present. Earthenware vessels can be used for variety of 
purposes.  
 
 
Earthenware products are used for various functions in the kitchen. Rice (1987) 
stated that, according to their function, domestic containers can be categorized as 
follows; 
 
1. Processing Products 
2. Transport Products 
3. Storage products 
 
 
3.4.1 The purpose of Earthenware Processing Products 
 
Processing products are more important than the Transportation and Storage 
products. Because (preparation products) same products are used for these purposes. 
In the process of preparing meals there are number of stages one has to go through. 
“Nebiliya”, ”Koraha”, “Hattiya”, “Muttiya”, “Atiliya”, “Kundahattiya”, and 
“Appalla” are used for different processes like boiling rice, cooking vegetables, fish 
and meals etc. These products have specific qualities to suit specific purposes, for an 
example “Nebiliya” has got a special quality to remove stones from rice. It has a 
concave surface for this purpose (See Section 2.6.2.1). Processing products have 
special qualities like thermal shock resistance, quality of rapid cooling and rapid 
 70 
heating, and the quality of water absorption (some percentage). These qualities vary 
with the products which are used for different purposes.  
 
 
 
 
Processing 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Processing objects are mainly based on the purpose of heating and non heating 
method. Boiling, Steaming, Frying, Roasting can be identified under the heating 
method and Mixing, Washing, Soaking, Pounding; Removing can be categorized 
under the non heating system. One product can be used for several purposes. It is a 
special feature of clay vessels. Some of the vessel forms are used for these functions 
and are expected to get the maximum use of the heat from the fire. They are 
generally likely to have a rounded shape rather than angled to avoid the thermal 
With heat 
Cooking  
Liquid or Dry 
Boiling, Steaming, Frying, 
Roasting 
 
 
“Athiliya” 
“Hattiya” 
“Muttiya” 
“Kunda Hattiya” 
“Kabala” 
 
“Thatiya” 
 
 
 
Without heat 
Preparation 
Mixing, Washing, Soaking, 
Pounding, Removing 
 
 
“Nebiliya” 
“Koraha” 
 “Madakkuwa” 
Figure 3.8: The Purpose of Processing and Use of Products 
 71 
shock. In addition the rounded contours permit greater exposure of the vessel’s base, 
walls and content to the heat.  
 
The shape of orifice is very important of the processing objects and their functions.  
Vessels can be named as unrestricted and restricted orifices. Unrestricted orifices 
(open lip) help adding and removing food, but slightly constricted or vessels which 
have a narrow necks would prevent overcook of food reduce evaporation. Vessels 
used for simmering or frying may be more open and have slightly flat bases. 
“Hattiya”, “Athiliya” and “Kunda Hattiya” consist of a wide mouth with 
unrestricted orifices, wide body and flat or round base. Cooking pots have a grip to 
hang or for carrying purposes. 
 
Thickness of the vessel is an important fact for the purpose of processing. Thick wall 
makes the clay vessels strong, so that pounding, stirring or mixing food in them can 
be done properly and easily. Thickness of the rim helps to hang the object properly. 
Thick wall can be a disadvantage for cooking, as it would pave the way to waist fuel 
by taking long time for cooking food. 
 
 
3.4.2 The purpose of Earthenware Transport Products 
 
In the past, food was carried from place to place, to serve different purposes. Clay 
products were used for food transportation (cooked foods) purposes. Earthenware is 
more suitable for food storage purpose as they have no side effects. But the time 
duration is limited to keep the food for sometime without getting spoiled. If it is a hot 
curry it can be kept at least 40 minutes without getting cooled, and having a good 
smell is another special quality of the earthenware clay body. It can be divided as 
short distance transport and long distance transport. Transport is rarely use in Sri 
Lankan society. According to the Rice (1987) it can be classified as follows; 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 “Atiliya”, “Kundahattiya”, “Appalla” are used for the purposes of long distance 
transport. But sometimes it can be used for short distance transport as well. Lid is 
very important to transport, these objects are used for covering the foods. Clay 
products like “Hattiya”, and “Muttiya”, cannot be separated as preparation or 
transport objects since most of them are used for both purposes. The usage varies 
according to the, behavior of the people and the provincial features.  
 
Most of the objects which are used for transporting food possess a small opening, to 
reduce the spillage when it is transferred from one place to another. These vessels 
have special features; the thin neck profile helps to tight the container well and easy 
for hanging and handling. It is the main concern of objects in which liquids are 
transferred. Most of containers consist of a thick wall which helps to keep the 
contents cooler, specially storing the liquids like water. And it also helps to increase 
body strength and stability. Surface appearance is also important for transferring 
objects as surface texture or rough effects provide a much safer grip. There is a 
Figure 3.9: The Purpose of Transport and Use of Products 
Transport 
 
Liquid             Dry 
 
Short distance 
 
Liquid             Dry 
 
Long distance 
 
Water 
Oil 
Wine 
 
 
“Kalaya” 
 
Seeds 
Dry fish 
Dry foods 
 
 
 
“Haliya” 
“Muttiya” 
+ 
“Mudiya”/Lid 
Water 
Serving curries 
Eating 
 
 
Water jug 
“Thatiya” 
“Bathwalada” 
+ 
“Mudiya”/Lid 
 
 73 
variety of decoration methods which are used as functional purposes. Specially the 
neck surface is decorated with texture designs.   
 
Besides these facts curry pots are used for long and short distance. Items which are 
used for eating and serving purposes have open unrestricted orifices. This makes 
easy access for serving and eating food. Most of the serving objects have a flat base; 
which maintain stability of the product. Most of vessels have thick wall and sloping 
shoulders in order to keep the warmth of the contents and prevent spilling while it is 
carried or passed around. Nowadays “Hattiya” and “Athiliya” are also used for 
serving purposes. They add a new impression to the table.  
 
 
3.4.3 The purpose of Earthenware Storage Products 
 
Storage is one of the original ways of storing food in Sri Lanka. People used to store 
their food for future needs, by using different traditional methods. Sand, salt, and 
clay were used as storage materials. Earthenware serves the purpose of storing food 
as it was no any bad effect on food. 
 
There are two types of storages; long term storage and short term storage. It can also 
be classified as dry storage and liquid storage. “Vessels used for long term storage or 
needing infrequent access is generally large and when full it too heavy for easy 
movement. A survey of ethnographic data suggest that liquid storage vessels may be 
move available in shape than dry storages vessels; liquid vessels are relatively short 
and squat” (Henrickson & Donald 1983,p.623). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 74 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Vessels used for long term storage have a greater volume than those used for short 
term storage. Specially in the short term and long term, dry storage vessels have 
unrestricted orifices. Wall thickness is important for products of storage because it 
improves vessels stability and keeps moisture content outside and inside of the 
vessel. 
 
Dry storage vessels are short, broad and squat while liquid storage vessels are tall. 
Liquid storage vessels have unrestricted orifices, which help to reduce spilling. Lid 
or “Mudiya” can be used as a covering object. There are more dry storage methods 
than the liquid storage methods in Sri Lankan kitchen. Sometimes both come 
together. “Hattiya”, and “Muttiya” are used as storage items. “Pani Kevum 
Muttiya” is a special object in the New Year season. “Kevum” can be kept for a long 
time by adding treacle. It can be identified as a dry and also a liquid storage method. 
Typically “Pani kevum” is used after the new year season. Other one is known as 
“Achcharu Muttiya”, which is also used at special events of the house. Earthenware 
is the only object that can be used for this purpose. Since it shows no reaction to any 
acid, “Achcharu” is kept only in that pot.(because vinegar is used for preparing 
Figure 3.10: The Purpose of Storage and Use of Products 
Storage 
Long term Short term 
Liquid                         Dry Liquid                         Dry 
(Water) 
 
 
“Kalaya” 
Goblet 
 
(Herbs, Fish) 
  
“Hattiya” 
“Athiliya” 
“Muttiya” 
(Wine, Oil) 
  
“Bujama” 
Clay pots 
(Grains, Salt, Seeds) 
  
“Hattiya” 
“Muttiya” 
 
 75 
“Achcharu”). In addition to that “Jadi Muttiya”, “Pani Muttiya”, are special storage 
elements in the Sri Lankan kitchen. Gunasekara, Premathilake & Silva (1971). 
 
Storage products can be described as short term usage products and long term usage 
products. The “Muttiya” can be covered with the base of the “Nebiliya”. It is well 
fixed to the orifice, and it provides air seal surface. When the “Muttiya” is used for 
short term usage “Nebiliya” is kept on the top of the orifice keeping it upside down. 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
3.5 Basic Cooking Methods in Sri Lanka 
 
Several types of cooking methods can be identified in Sri Lankan society. Sri Lankan 
food is spicy and nutritious. According to the method that Sri Lankan dishes are 
prepared, it can be divided in to four groups, as; 
 
1. Boiling 
2. Steaming 
3. Frying 
4. Roasting 
3.5.1  Boiling 
Figure 3.11 : Storage “Muttiya” and “Nebiliya”  (a,b) 
a b 
 76 
 
The food is heated until the water inside is boiled. This method of preparing food 
dates back to prehistory. Humans would have started boiling food from the time they 
discovered fire. Boiling is a quick method of preparing meals and it does not destroy 
the nutrients of the food. One can prepare grams, cereals, yams and vegetables by 
boiling. 
 
The water should be heated beyond 1000C in order to prepare the food properly. The 
container that is used for this purpose must also be able to withstand heat. 
Earthenware products can be used for boiling food. Their ability to withstand heat is 
an advantage. 
 
Among earthenware products that can be used to boil, “Muttiya” is very important. 
A part from that, “Hattiya” and “Athiliya” are also important. The interior of the pot 
that is used for boiling must be spacious. When food boils, it moves to and fro inside 
the pot, it is vital that the pot has enough room to allow this. Thus, the body of the 
pot needs to be big and the belly needs to slim down (in width) gradually. This helps 
to increase the air pressure inside the vessel and to minimize the outward flow of hot 
air. By covering the top (orifice) of the vessel, it can accelerate the boiling. 
“Karamudiya”,”Nebiliya” or “Madakkuwa” can be used to cover the orifice. One 
need to seal the orifice of the “Muttiya” and the “Nebiliya” is ideal for this. In 
conclusion, pots with greater depth and small orifice are ideal for boiling food. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.12: “Muttiya” covered with “Nebiliya” 
 77 
 
Rice is prepared in such vessels. The “Muttiya”, in which rice is cooked, is covered 
at the top (orifice) with “Nebiliya”. Ones the rice is boiled the fire is lowered to 
allow it simmer. The orifice, then, is covered with the “Nebiliya” and the steam 
inside the “Muttiya” boils the grains of rice. If the food is boiled prior to cooking, 
the amount of time required for the cooking process comes down. It is important to 
pre cook (boil) food such as potatoes and sweet potatoes. 
 
When cooking in a clay pot, the vapour gets out through the body surface. This 
happens because the clay is porous, and it is definitely an advantage. “Muttiya” is 
ideal for boiling. Apart from that, “Hattiya” and “Athiliya” are also used. The round 
shape of the “Muttiya” allows holding a large amount of food inside it. The 
“Muttiya” is manufactured to withstand the pressure that is generated inside it (when 
cooking). That is why it has a thick body. The “Muttiya” also has a wide collar 
which allows lifting it easily. 
  
3.5.2    Steaming 
 
Steaming is another method of cooking in Sri Lanka. Even sweetmeats are prepared 
by steaming. Food that easily dissolves in water is prepared using this method. 
Food(s) such as “Pittu”, string hoppers, “Helapa”, “Wandu” yams and cereals are 
steamed. Wheat flour and rice flour are also steamed. 
 
Quite a large vessel is required for steaming because a large vessel can hold a large 
amount of water which will generate a lot of steam. And the vessel should have a 
restricted orifice in order to steam effectively. The vessel is filled with water and the 
orifice is covered with a cloth (ideally a clean cotton cloth). This piece of cloth is 
known as “Kadawesma”. After that food is laid carefully on the top of the cotton 
cover. Then, the food is entirely covered by another vessel. A special lid is used for 
this, which is called “Karamudiya” or “Wahantharawa”. The purpose of the second 
cover is also to retain the evaporated water. The “Pittu Mudiya” is a special lid used 
for covering, but a big “Karamudiya” can also serve this purpose. 
 78 
“Muttiya” or a big “Hattiya” is used to fill water. This vessel should have a large 
body. This is covered with a “Pittu Mudiya” which is shaped like a bell. This shape 
allows holding a lot of food inside, and as it gradually becomes slender towards the 
top, hot air can circulate very well inside it. This lid has a small knob to lift it. 
Towards the bottom, the shape becomes restricted but it ends with an unrestricted 
collar. The collar and the knob are essential to lift the lid. 
 
As this vessel is made of earthenware clay, it can withstand a lot of pressure. The 
thickness of the body and its shape are other important factors that make the vessel 
pressure resistant. For the lid to remain stable on top, its weight and strong wall are 
important. The strong wall absorbs air and water. 
 
The water must be heated well to steam food. A hearth that uses firewood would take 
25 to 30 minutes to get heated while a gas cooker would take 15 to 20 minutes. This 
time differs according to the size of the vessel, the amount of water in it and 
according to the properties of the clay body. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
3.5.3 Frying  
 
Preparing food by frying is another method of cooking in Sri Lanka. There are two 
methods of frying; surface frying and deep frying. Different kinds of oils are used for 
frying but coconut oil is the mostly used oil. Butter and margarine can also be used 
for frying. They give more flavors to the food. Unlike water, the oil must be heated 
to 1000C or higher. And the utensil that is used for frying must be made of a material 
Figure 3.13: Use of “Kadawesma”  
 79 
that can withstand such temperatures. Earthenware cooking pots can withstand such 
temperatures. Only a little amount of oil (or margarine, butter) is used for surface 
frying. Oil is not absolutely necessary when surface frying in clay pots. If it is a pot 
that has been used previously, it has an oily surface. The interior is non-sticky. As 
the clay body has absorbed oil that was used in previous occasions, the pot will have 
an oily surface when reusing. “Hattiya” and “Athiliya” are also used for frying. The 
depths of these utensils are essential for cooking and mixing the food. Apart from 
these utensils, clay “Thachchi” is also used in some areas. “Mellum” and various 
other foods can be prepared by surface frying. Coconut, which is used for “Mellum”, 
also increases the oiliness of the surface. As too much fat is harmful for the body, 
this method can help to avoid health hazards. 
 
Deep frying requires a utensil with a wide orifice depth. One can use “Hattiya” and 
“Athiliya” for this. The shape of the bottom of those pots help hold oil and heat it 
quickly. The foods cooked in clay pot have a better taste. And one can store the food 
for 2 or 3 days in those pots. In order to do the storing properly, one must remove the 
excess oil in the pot. The porosity of the clay body plays an important role here. 
Therefore metal pots are more suitable for deep frying than the clay objects as they 
(clay objects) have the quality of porosity. Metal (“Thachchi”) pots are used to 
prepare traditional sweets like “Kevum”, “Kokis”, and “Aasmi”. 
 
3.5.4 Roasting 
 
People have been roasting food for a very long time. Among food that is roasted, 
meat and yams are the most important ones. “Kabala” and “Thatiya” (tray) are the 
earthenware pots that can be used for frying.  
 
“Roti” and “Dosai” are among the food prepared using “Thatiya”. Sometimes 
“Thatiya” comes with only one handle (instead of two). The round edge of the 
orifice prevents food from spilling. It is easy to clean this utensil. “Kabala” has a 
wide mouth, an orifice and an unrestricted shape that help to absorb heat well. Its 
 80 
wide surface helps to evaporate the water content of the food rapdly. Grains, nuts, 
chilli, pepper, and rice are roasted using “Kabala”. 
 
3.6 Identification of Earthenware Culinary Products 
 
Earthenware vessels are named in different ways. In general terms used for vessels 
are “Valam” or “Hatti”, “Mutti”. There are several types of Earthenware pots 
available in Sri Lankan society. The usage of the product, functions and the product 
identifications (name of the product and according to the product sizes) may vary 
according to provincial features.  These products can be used as short term usage and 
also the long term usage. Generally earthenware products can be identified as 
follows. 
 
 
 
 
 
Function 
 
Common term 
Size 
Small Medium Large 
Storing water Kale Kotale Kale Bujama 
Begging foods Patraya patraya - Taliya 
Boiling/Storing rice Halivalam Mutti Appalla/Hali Barani 
Cooking curries Halivalam Kundahatti Hatti Athili 
Eating /Cleaning rice Halivalam Adivalanda Koraha, Nembiliya - 
Boilling paddy/rice Appallapodi - - Mahaappalla 
Covering Vessels Mudi Pittumudi Karamudi - 
Eating foods Taliya Pingana Palagana - 
 
Source: (De Silva & Dissanayake , 2008, 20p) 
 
Table 3.1: Function Terms of the Local Household Pottery 
 81 
3.6.1 Earthenware Culinary Products and it Function 
 
Earthenware cooking pots can be described as cooking pots, pots used for 
cleaning and washing food items and auxiliary products. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
“Muttiya” 
 
“Hattiya” 
 “Athiliya” 
 
“Thatiya” 
“Kabala” 
 
 
“Kalaya” 
“Guruleththuwa
 
 
Earthenware Products 
Cooking Auxiliary products Cleaning and washing 
Others Cooking 
Pots 
Cooking 
Trays 
Cooking 
Bowl 
 
“Karamudiya”/“Wahantharawa” 
“Pittumudiya" 
Lid 
“Nambiliya” 
 “Koraha” 
“Adiwalada” 
 
 
Using with “Mudiya” or Lid 
 
Figure 3.14: Earthenware Culinary Products and their Functions 
 82 
3.6.2 Identification of Earthenware Cleaning and Washing Objects  
 
3.6.2.1 “Nebiliya” 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
An unrestricted bowl type vessel has simple contours. Position of rim ticking in 
relation to vessel wall is on the exterior and junction between the thickened part and 
wall is abrupt. Point of greatest thickness is at the bottom. Shape of thickened part is 
slightly convex downwards to the exterior. The mouth is wide and the diameter of 
the orifice is nearly twice the vessel’s height. Characteristic comb marks inside is for 
sifting the sand and grit from rice mainly. “Irigahana katuwa” is used to decorate 
the object before the pot is fired. This textured surface helps to develop the 
functionality of the product. Interior surface with a rough texture can be used for 
cleaning and smashing yams. The idea of sifting to see the sand remains in the vessel 
whilst the water and rice pour out from the“Nebiliya”to another vessel. In this 
process the rim works as a drip ledge. Any types of grains are shifted in this, such as 
‘Kurakkan, Meneri,’ Green gram, etc.  
 
(Alles, 1997) stated that, The “Nebiliya” is fashioned like a gemming basket and 
serves a similar purpose. It is used for washing rice and as gemming basket the 
stones, being heavier, sink to the bottom and remain in the grooves of the pot when 
the rice swirled round and that which comes to the top with the addition of water is 
slowly allowed to pass through the fingers a little at a time in to another open vessel 
or bowl, usually a “Koraha”. This process which is repeated again and again, each 
Figure 3.15: Variety of “Nebiliya”- Section 
 83 
time with the addition of a little water taken by dipping the “Nebiliya” in to the 
water in to the “Koraha”, is known as “Garanawa”. Different shapes of “Nebiliya” 
can be seen in different areas in the country. They take these different shapes 
according to the particular purpose of using the product. Three types of “Nebiliya” 
can be identified in the past “Banda Nebiliya”, “Thoppi Nebiliya” and “Kara 
Nebiliya”. “Kara Nebiliya” is used in present and also it is used as a lid when 
cooking rice. 
 
 
3.6.2.2 “Koraha”  
 
 
 
 
 
“Koraha” is a pot much bigger than the “Nebiliya”. A foot is fixed at the bottom to 
steady the vessel when placed on a flat surface. Characteristic comb marks inside is 
an essential feature for sifting rice. Rice is sifted in to “Koraha” with the help of 
“Nebiliya” and the rice after sifting is rubbed and washed in the “Koraha”. Position 
of thickening in relation to vessel wall is in the exterior. Junction of thickness is at a 
low level. The shape of thickened part slopes downwards to the exterior. This rim 
helps to pouring water from one vessel to another, and also holding it firmly with 
hand. “Diya Koraha” and “ Pol Koraha” are bigger than the normal one and they 
are used for bathing and “Vilkoraha” is another type, which is used for soaking of 
paddy. 
 
Figure3.16: Variety of “Koraha”- Section 
 84 
3.6.2.3 “Adi Walada” 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A shallow bowl with a circular stand; this is called the “Adi walada” or “Mati 
coppaya” and “Bath walada”. This is an unrestricted vessel with a wide mouth. 
Position of thickening in relation to vessel wall is in the exterior. Junction of 
thickened part with wall is gradual. Shape of thickened part is slightly convex on the 
exterior. This rim can serve as a drip ledge and a holder for the vessel. Normally this 
serves a variety of functions such as to scrape coconut in to it and squeeze coconut to 
obtain milk, to wash vegetables as a container or a bowl, and this is also used a s a lid 
for curries etc. some people eat rice in this pot using as a plate. It is because the 
particular form of this pot which serves so many purposes, but there is no specific 
size for this pot. This is called the “Adi walada” or “Mati coppaya” by the low 
country people, while the up country people called it “Bathwalada” or 
“Madakkuwa”. 
 
 
 3.6.3 Identification of Earthenware Auxiliary Objects 
 
3.6.3.1 “Karamudiya”/“Wahantharawa” 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.18: Variety of Lid- Section  
Figure3.17: Variety of “Adiwalada” - Section 
 85 
Lid can be named as “Karamudiya”or“Wahantharawa”. It can be used to cover the 
“Hattiya”, “Athiliya” and “Muttiya”. This is a piece of shallow pot with a wide 
mouth. It has a round shape knob on the top to hold it. But when resting on the 
ground, this handle is used as the stand.   
 
 
 
 
 
3.6.3.2 “Pittumudiya" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure3.19: A Lid 
Figure 3.20: Section of “Pittumudi” (a , b) 
 
Figure 3.21: Variety of “Pittumudi” (a,b) 
 
a b 
a b 
 86 
S  t  e  a  m  
 
There is a one type of lid which is a further 
development of “Karamudiya”. It is deep and 
bell shaped and also it has a wide mouth and 
ring handle at the top. It has less surface 
decorations. This is used as a lid to cover the 
pot with boiling water and steaming purposes. 
Curved surface helps to formulate steam 
inside the body. As the bottom area of the lid 
fixes well to the pot, there will be no any 
steam leakages.  
 
 
 
3.6.4 Identification of Earthenware Cooking Objects 
 
This section tries to identify basic design elements, design principals and functional 
aspects of the earthenware cooking pots. The majorities of cooking vessels are sphere 
shaped and consist of large basal surface; which helps to transfer heat to a greater 
extent. They are identified as restricted and unrestricted orifices. It depends on usage 
of the product. Cooking pots are short and squat. It has a restricted orifice and helps 
to prevent rapid evaporation of boiling foods. According to the shape, form and 
usage of the product, cooking pots can be classified in to three types.  
 
1. Cooking pots 
“Mutti” 
2. Cooking bowls 
“Hatti” and “Athili” 
3. Cooking trays  
“Kabala” 
 
Figure 3.22: Importance of 
“Pittumudiya” 
 87 
Cooking pots, bowls and trays are commonly used in every house. Those three main 
types of clay pots are developed in spherical shape. It can be identified as the basic 
shape of every cooking pot. All products are symmetrical and they consist of the 
center of gravity. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
All the cooking pots can be identified as a development or changes of the “Muttiya”. 
“Muttiya” gets a spherical shape and the body structure is consisted with bend 
Pot Shape Tray Shape Bowl Shape 
0 
1 
3 
5 
6 
4 
2 
Figure 3.23: Structural Development of the spherical Shape 
Figure 3.24: Shape Varieties 
 88 
points. The points are making turning points and angles. It affected to identify it is 
restricted or unrestricted form, and also to create short, height, or flat based products.  
 
3.6.4.1 Cooking Pots 
 
Cooking pots get a spherical shape. The orifice is less than the maximum diameter of 
the pot. The pot is much protected and safe due to the shape. Therefore “Muttiya” 
can be identified as another kind of a cooking pot. 
 
3.6.4.1.1 Form Analysis  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Shape of Pot 
0 
1 
3 
5 
6 
4 
2 
Figure 3.25: Form Analysis of Pot Shape 
0 
5 
0 - 5 
 89 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Source: (Seligmann & Seligmann, 1993 p.328) 
 
3.6.4.1.2 “Muttiya” 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
“Muttiya” is a kind of cooking pots that is commonly used for cooking and storing. 
It serves a variety of functions and has a wide range of sizes. It can be identified as a 
restricted vessel. The bottom part of it looks like an unrestricted form but from the 
maximum diameter body shape turns in to the restricted form. It has a wide flat 
orifice and flared rim which turns from inwards to outwards. Sloping shoulders meet 
the concave bottom to form a sharp angle. The orifice’s diameter is less than the 
vessel’s maximum diameter, so that the contents are protected.   When transporting, 
pots are placed one on another. The slightly convex bottom is well fitted to the flared 
rim. 
 
The form of a “Muttiya” is used for many culinary and storing purposes. It is given 
different names according to the purposes and usage. When rice is cooked in 
Figure 3.27: Variety of “Muttiya” 
Figure 3.26: Veddas Pot 
 
 90 
“Muttiya” it is called “Bath –muttiya”. “Lunu”, “Goraka”, “Jadi”, pickles are also 
stored in “Muttiya”. Oil-cake such as “kevum” too is stored in “Muttiya” and is 
called “kevun- Muttiya”. “Muttiya” is also used to boil milk. Small “Mutti” are used 
for boiling milk on ceremonial occasions and preparing milk rice for such purposes. 
A “Muttiya” which is used for toddy tapping is called “Gas-Muttiya”, and 
Coomaraswamy (1956) refers to this as “Uga Muttiya” which is used for “Aluth 
sahal Managalya” at Kundasale temple and also to “Embul Muttiya” which contain 
the medicinal preparation of juices of plants and oil for the “Nanamura 
Mangallaya”. These pots are not only used for domestic functions but also for 
ritualistic events. “Lawrie” talks about “Nanumura mutti” and a “Gas Mutti” which 
may have been used to bathe image and symbols during the Nanumura Mangallaya 
ceremony. Apart from these pots, there are other several types of “Muttis” which are 
used for the ritualistic purposes; such as, “Nidan Mutti” and “Arakshaka Mutti”. 
They are small “Mutti” which are meant for burying purpose and hanging on roofs 
etc, with charmed protective materials in land when there is new construction work.  
 
The exterior wall of the vessel is thick. At the point of the lip it has become very 
thick. The bottom gradually becomes curved and it has a big rounded body. Some 
times there may be simple decorations on the outside walls of the pot.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.28: Variety of “Muttiya” - Section 
 91 
To keep the “Muttiya” on a flat surface a “Daranuwa” has to be used. There are six 
types of “Muttiya’ which are used for culinary purposes. This categorization can be 
varied in different provinces in Sri Lanka. Boiling rice is a main usage of 
a“Muttiya”. The sizes of product depend on the weight and the rice content kept on 
it. “Muttiya” is covered with “Nebiliya”. It helps to steam rice well as, it well fixes 
to the orifice and no gap is left to waste hot steam. Not only that “Karamudiya, 
Wahantharawa” or “ Madakkuwa” are also used as covering items.  
 
 
3.6.4.2 Cooking Bowls 
 
The basic shape of cooking bowls can be identified as a development of half of 
spherical shape. “Hattiya” and “Athiliya” are categorized as cooking bowls. They 
get restricted and unrestricted orifices. The shape is good enough to prepare a large 
quantity of curry with gravy and without gravy. Curry is mixed properly and heat is 
absorbed well in these bowls due to the proper shape of them.  
 
 
3.6.4.2.1 Form Analysis 
 
Two types of basic structures used to develop the bowl shapes objects. Such as  
“Hattiya” and “Athiliya”  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
1 
3 
5 
6 
4 
2 
a 
 92 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
3.6.4.2.2 “Athiliya” 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure3.31: “Athiliya” 
Figure 3.30: Variety of “Athiliya” - Section 
Figure 3.29: Form Analysis of Bowl Shape (a,b) 
 
0 
Bowl Shape 
5 
0 
4 
a 
 93 
“Athiliya” is a shallower vessel with a wide mouth and this mouth is wider than the 
belly. It could be found in every household in the past and it is here in present 
society. It is commonly used for the preparation of curries without gravy, or for 
preparing dry curries. Curd is set in such pots and is called “Kiri Athiliya”. 
Coomaraswamy (1979) says “Kanbola athiliya” was used for preparing sweet 
meets: a pot with a handle which is not very common.  
“Athiliya” is a shallow curved vessel with an unrestricted upper part and a widely 
open orifice.  
(Silva & Dissanayake , 2008, 23p) 
 
The rim is flattened and turned outwards. The diameter of the orifices equals the 
maximum diameter of the vessel. It looks like a bowl and it is easy to stir well and 
one can see any content in the vessel.  It’s an unrestricted vessel with variations to 
the simple contours. The height is equal to the radius of the orifice. The vertical edge 
has changed the bowl form to a shape of a cooking vessel.  
 
The thickened part flattens outward (See Figure 3.30). This makes the stirring easy 
and to see the contents in the vessel. The point of thickness is at the lip and it 
gradually reduces the thickness when towards the bottom. The vessel can be held 
firmly by the rim (slightly convex bottom) making it easy to place on the hearth and 
heat quickly and to take out from the hearth after heating. When keeping it on a flat 
surface, one must keep it on a “Daranuwa”. If the bottom of the vessel is made thin, 
it helps to absorb heat well. But if it is too thin, it leads to Thermal Crack. Sometimes 
the top of the outside surface is adorned with simple decorations. “Athiliya” is 
covered with “Kara Mudiya” or a Lid.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.32 : “Hattiya” covered with “Adiwalada” 
 
 94 
“Athiliya” can be found in four different sizes, sometimes it comes in five or six 
sizes. They vary in diameter and height of the vessels and rim profiles. There are 
several types “Athiliya”. According to the De Silva & Dissanayake (2008) 
“Athiliya” is a large size step of the “Hattiya”. But in different places in Sri Lanka, 
“Athiliya” is seen as a small step away from “Hattiya”. It differs from place to place 
in Sri Lanka. Sometimes both names (“Athiliya” or“Hattiya” ) are used for the same 
object. But the common theory is that these two types of objects are used for two 
different purposes.   
 
3.6.4.2.3 “Hattiya” 
(See Section 3.7) 
 
3.6.4.3 Cooking Trays 
 
Cooking trays can be described as a frying object in the culinary family. “Kabala”, 
“Thatiya” are also identified as trays. “Kabala” is not a creative object; it is a part of 
a damaged or broken pot. It is ‘reuses’ object.  But in present society several types of 
designs (“Thatiya” or “Kabala”), are manufactured.  
 
3.6.4.3.1 Form Analysis  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.33: Form analysis of Tray Shape 
0 
5 
3 
1 
0 - 1 
 95 
3.6.4.3.2 “Thatiya” 
 
“Thatiya” is a flat plate which is used for eating and serving food. Today the name 
“Thatiya” and “kabala” are used for the same object. “Roti Thatiya” is a common 
item in every household, but it is not used for serving and eating purposes. Other 
than that “Thatiya” is used to prepare dry substances .This is shallow and has a 
concave interior. The height of the “Thatiya” is ¼ of the maximum diameter of the 
orifice. 
 
“Thatiya” is very similar in shape to “Kabala”. “Thatiya” is finer than “Kabala”. 
Earthenware “Thatiya” comes in curved and flat shapes. In terms of the build 
quality, “Thatiya” is better than “Kabala”. The superior surface quality of 
“Thatiya” is a special feature of it. Flat based “Thatiya” is commonly used in every 
household. In the past it had no handle. But sometimes in today’s designs “Thatiya” 
has a handle. It helps to hang the object properly.  (this is useful when the utensil is 
hot).  
 
“Thatiya” has three main variations in terms of rim profile, 
 
1. The interior rim profile 
2. The exterior rim profile 
3. The rimless profile 
 
An interior rim profile helps to prevent liquids from spilling over. When it has an 
exterior rim profile it helps to pour the liquids to another vessel and works as a drip 
edge. The other types of “Thatiya” have restricted orifices. The curving shoulders 
prevent content from spilling, when taking it out with a spoon. The flat bottomed 
“Thatiya” can be placed on a flat surface without any stand. These shapes of 
“Thatiya” can be observed in modern curry dishes.  
 
 
 96 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
“Kiri roti thatiya” is a special type of “Thatiya” for making “Kiri roti”, which is a 
kind of food. This pan has one, two, three or sometimes four cavities to make special 
kind of “Roti”. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.34: Variety of “Thatiya” - Section 
Figure 3.36: “Kiri Roti Thatiya” - Section 
 
Figure 3. 35: Side View of “Thatiya” 
 97 
3.6.4.3.3 “Kabala” 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
This is a simple unrestricted vessel. Having the maximum diameter at the orifice it 
facilitates taking out food and observing color changes while roasting takes place. 
The meaning of the “Kabala” is an article of no use, which is usually thrown away. 
Pieces that came from the lower body of broken pots “Hattiya”, “Muttiya”, 
“Athiliya” were used as “Kabala” (a roasting try) in the past. But today “Kabala” is 
manufactured as a separate piece. This has been used for roasting chilies and other 
grains like gram, green gram, etc. Sometimes “kabala” is used to prepare “Roti” 
other than that, it is also used for burning incense and to keep charcoals lighted for 
warming up a place. The “kabala” has been identified with the change of term as 
“Dummala Kabala” or “Gini Kabala”. “Kabala” is rarely used in present days.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.37: Variety of “Kabala” - Section 
 
 98 
3.7 Structural Analysis of  “Hattiya” 
 
3.7.1 Identification of “Hattiya” 
 
“Hattiya” can be described as an important culinary product. De Silva &, 
Dissanayake  (2008) explained as, “General terms under for vessel are “Valam” or 
“Hatti”, “Mutti””(p.20). Coomaraswamy (1979) stated that generic terms for vessels 
are “Heliya” and “Valada”. But term “Helivalam” measures four pieces used to 
cook a rice meal, which are namely “Muttiya”, “Heliya”, “Hattiya” and “Nebiliya”.  
“Hattiya” is more spacious and normally used to prepare curries with gravy. It is 
bigger than the “Athiliya” . It is a simple restricted vessel with composite contours. 
This vessel is shallower than “Athiliya” but some types are deeper than “Athiliya”. 
It has a convex spherical body and this helps to boil and mix curries properly. The 
round body helps to take the contents out with a spoon. The orifice or the lip has a 
greater thickness but it gradually reduces thickness at the bottom. The bottom is not 
rounded but it has an angular shape. Occasionally the top of the outside surface is 
adorned with simple decorations.  
 
There are several sizes of “Hattiya’s” in use today, and small size differences can be 
identified from province to province. They varied in size, functional features and 
aesthetical aspects. “Hattiya” is also called as “Athiliya”, this is also different 
according to the province. In Down South a larger “Hattiya” is known as “Athiliya” 
but in the up country, “Athiliya” is identified as a small “Hattiya”. It is shorter than 
the “Hattiya”. “Appallaya” and “Haliya” are the other terms for “Hattiya”. “In the 
past, Hattiya”, was known as “Appalla” in the up country. In Down South “Haliya” 
and the “Hattiya”are called as “Athiliya”. Pottery sellers tell that people come and 
ask for “Podi Athili” and “Loku Hatti”.  
 
 
 
 
 99 
 
 
 
 
“Kunda Hattiya” is another version of the “Hattiya”, it looks like an “Athiliya” and 
currently it is rarely used in practice. This is more spacious and normally used to 
prepare big curries with gravy. “Hattiya” is also used as a container to set the curd. 
Before the introduction of the machine made curd pot “Muttiya”, “Kunda Hattiya” 
and “Athiliya” were used to prepare the curd. After introducing the machine made 
curd pot it reduced the use of traditional pots to set the curd as the machine made 
production processes is easy and faster than the traditional method. It has a simple 
manufacturing process, and the ability to produce a huge amount.  
 
Machine made curd pots can have 30% of damages and defects during the firing 
occasion. However the percentage of damages and defects will be less in the man-
made products as they are produced by the potter wheel. Although there will be clay 
wastage and fuel wastage as well, people do not consider this matter, as the machine 
provides an easy manufacturing method. Hence it is obvious that this is not a very 
suitable method in the clay industry since it has many drawbacks. Subsequently it 
has adverse effects on clay deposits on the earth and also on creative abilities of 
people.   
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.39: A “Kundahattiya” 
Figure 3.38: A “Hattiya” 
Figure 3.40: Wheel Thrown Curd Pots  
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Clay body has a quality to set the curd. It helps to absorb the water content from the 
curd because of the quality of porosity.  “Hattiya” is used as a long term storage for 
the curd processes; and is called “Kiri Hattiya”. It can be re- used for cooking 
purpose again. Specially “Hattiya”and “Kundahattiya” are used to prepare curries. 
However   the present curd pot cannot be used for cooking purpose, as it cracks when 
kept on the hearth. These will occur as a result of the thickness of the body. Man 
made clay pots take the shape gradually reducing the wall thickness from orifice to 
base. It helps for heat absorption and fixes clay particles as a bond. This does not 
happen in the machine made curd pot. It is difficult to clean the curd “Hattiya’ 
because of the straight angles of the inside surface. This New “Kiri Hattiya” cannot 
be used as a cooking pot, as it has a small orifice which does not suite to make, some 
gravy food.  
 
“Hattiya” is used as long term storage and also for the short term usage. When 
preparing “Malu Abulthiyal”, “Hattiya” is used as long term storage until the fish 
pieces become seasoned.  It provides a good smell and a good taste for the curry. 
 “Hattiya” was in a good standard which had quality and functionality. Gradually the 
qualities of the product were decreasing because of the arrival of other alternative 
Figure 3.41:  Curd Pot making Machine       Figure 3.42: “Kiri Hattiya” (a,b) 
 
a 
b 
 101 
products.  “Hattiya” is produced using a potter’s wheel, and a symmetrical form. As 
a result of that Sri Lankan clay pots have got rounded and curved shapes.  Most of 
the products are created according to the Sri Lankan culture.   
 
“Hattiya” can be described as a product which is developed during the process of 
manufacturing the “Muttiya”. Globular shape is a steady structure which controls the 
volume of a liquid. Usually the shape of a product provides safety, and gives an 
aesthetical appearance despite the different forms that it gets restricted or 
unrestricted. It promotes the concept of well packing item too.  Although the shape 
of the “Hattiya” maintained its standards such as proper size and etc. at the 
beginning, gradually the qualities like proper design and the functionality were not 
paid much attention.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Basically “Hattiya” takes six different sizes. Small “Hattiyas” are used for domestic 
cooking purposes and big ones are used to prepare curries for special occasions either 
weddings or almsgivings (two small sizes, one medium size, three large sizes (See 
Section 3.7.8). Usually “Hattiya” can be covered with a Lid (“Karamudiya” / 
“Wahantharawa”). Large “Hattiyas” can be covered with a “Koraha”. 
“Madakkuwa” is also used to cover the “Hattiya”. That depends on the requirement 
of the situation.    
 
 
 
Importance of the shape 
Figure 3.43: Importance of “Hattiya” 
 
 102 
3.7.2 Manufacturing Processes of “Hattiya” 
 
“Hattiya” is manufactured using a potter’s wheel. As a result of that it takes the 
shape of a symmetrical object. Before start the throwing; good clay compound which 
are free from unnecessary particles should be selected.  In the first stage of the 
manufacturing process, the rim and half of the body is made and extra clay is 
removed from the wheel without a base. It should be kept outside until it becomes 
hard (leather hard).  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.44: Steps of Manufacturing 
“Hattiya”, “Edikaranawa” (a , b) 
Rim  
Base  
 
Figure 3.45: Leather hard Products – without Base  
b a 
 103 
Bottom part of the vessel is finished manually using a “Thalana lella”or 
“Athakoluwa” and “Ath gala”. The round stone (Athgala) is used to finish and shine 
the surface of the product. “Hattiya”, has a greater thickness in the rim. The reason 
for that is, it needs more than 1cm of thickness in order to rotate the object when it is 
in leather hard condition and it also helps to push the clay to the bottom part. And the 
thickness of the orifice is important to hang and carry the object. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.46: Making a Bottom part of the vessel (a , b) 
 
a b 
Figure 3.48: Green ware products Figure 3.47: Finishing Products 
 104 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.49: Tools  
“Athakoluwa” / “Thalana Lella” 
(a / b / c )  
Decoration Tool  
“Athgala”  
a 
b 
c 
Leather Hard Product 
Figure 3.50: Variety of “Athakoluwa”  
Figure 3.51: Variety of “Athgala”  
 
 105 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.52: Covered with “Kabal”   
(Damaged pots) 
 
Figure 3.53: Covered with Clay 
 
Figure 3.54: Firing 
 
 106 
 
 The bottom part of the pot gradually becomes thin, it is good for heat absorption and 
it helps to obtain a bottom crack when it is heated. It should gradually reduce the 
wall thickness. Thick wall is important to absorb water and to retain the heat within 
food. Earthenware can be fired at around 7500C to 8500C in wooden kiln. Clay 
Shrinkage differs according to the clay composition. 
 
  
3.7.3 Structural Analysis of “Hattiya” 
 
Clay pot is mainly consisted with three parts, Orifice, Belly and Base. These three 
elements are very important facts to create a completed product. Next heading will 
be explaining about the line segment of the “Hattiya”. 
 
 
3.7.3.1 Line Segment of “Hattiya”  
 
Shape of the “Hattiya” is wider than the round shape, it gets oval or ellipse 
shape. Following drawings will explain the evolution of the shape of the 
“Hattiya” 
 
 
 
 
 
 
   
 
 
 
 
 
0 
1 
3 
5 
6 
4 
2 
0 
1 
3 
5 
6 
4 
2 
a 
 107 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.55: Line Segments of “Hattiya” (a,b) 
 
0 
1 
3 
5 
4 
2 
0-3 
0-2 0 
1 
3 
5 
4 
2 
0-4 0 
1 
3 
5 
4 
2 
Round Shape Oval Shape 
b 
 108 
Small Size  
 
 
 
Medium Size 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Large Size 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.56: Variety of “Hattiya”  
 
 109 
3.7.3.2 Structure of a “Hattiya” 
 
“Hattiya” is a useful culinary item in Sri Lankan kitchen. “Hattiya” can be identified 
as a further development of the “Muttiya”. The body shape of “Hattiya” is 
developed by changing of corner point. When corner point varies, the overall shape 
and the form of the pot also change. It helps to create unrestricted or restricted 
shapes. 
Following drawings explain the changes of bend points; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Present “ Hattiya” 
 
 
 
Figure 3.57:  Bend point Changes -  “Muttiya” 
Figure 3.58: Bend point Changes and structural development of the “Hattiya” 
 110 
Bend point has a direct effect to change the product when profile. Generally the bend 
point of the “Muttiya” is in the upper part of the vessel structure when “Hattiya” is 
made. The lower part of the body gets a spherical shape with a big volume. When the 
bend point moves to the lower part of the vessel structure, the mouth of the pot 
becomes wider and height becomes lesser than the “Muttiya”. That profile is 
identified as a “Hattiya”. This is shown from the drawings. Changing the bend point 
has an effect on the use of the product and product functionally. 
 
The structure of the “Hattiya” can be divided in two parts as the upper part and the 
lower part. A vertical view of the exterior can be divided in to four parts. ¼ of the 
height (from the bottom) can be identified as the lower part while the upper part 
accounts for ¾ (three quarters). The upper part consists of an orifice, belly and the 
lover part consists of a base.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The structure of the clay vessel is developed according to these three parts. It helps 
the structural properties of the product. This can be identified as the basic structure of 
the product. The upper part of the vessel is more functional than the lower part of the 
vessel. “Mostly upper part of the vessel indicated the functional and stylistic 
characteristic of a pottery vessel” (De Silva & Dissanayake, 2008, 18p). 
 
Figure 3.59: Upper Part & Lower Part of the “Hattiya” 
Upper Part 
Lower Part 
1 
2 
3 
1 
0 
 111 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The orifice, the belly and the base are important for product functionality. A structure 
of a vessel might look simple but it consists of angles, curves, and corners. All body 
shapes need to address functional requirements.  
 
Ceramic products have numerous limitations. They cannot be created in several 
shapes. When developing vessel shapes, much attention has to be paid to the wall 
thickness and the product weight, the weight of the clay vessel is important to handle 
the object easily and thickness has an effect on water and heat absorption of the clay 
vessels. All body shapes and forms have to be created according to the usage of a 
product. These facts can be identified as main considerable factors when 
manufacturing clay vessels.  
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.60: Basic Structure of the Vessel (“Hattiya”) 
m.d. 
Orifice / Lip 
Belly / Body 
Base 
Surface deco 
 112 
3.7.4 Orifice and Rim Varieties of “Hattiya” 
 
 “Hattiya” has an unrestricted orifice and several types of lip formations can be 
identified. Essentially the lip of the “Hattiya” is turned in to outside the body but it 
gets various angles. Several types of orifices can be identified in the earthenware 
products (See section 2.7.3.2). The following lip shapes are used for “Hattiya” and 
also for the other culinary products. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The orifice should be curved with a grip, because it is easy to hanging the object and 
staking the object. The orifice (No3. picture) has a small grip; it is like a primary 
stage of the orifice (See Figures: 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4). It is difficult to hang with 
fingers. No.2 (a) picture is similar to a present “Hattiya” orifice. It has an angle to 
the exterior and unrestricted orifice. But it has a small angle and a grip.   
Orifice is formed of the lip; it can be called as a rim. In the past history culinary 
products did not have a rim. However it was developed as a rim through their 
a. Abrupt 
 
b. Gradual 
 
c.    Exterior 
  
Figure: 
a        b 
1 
  a         b 
2 
c 
3 
Figure 3.61: Identification of Lip Variations of the “Hattiya” 
 113 
experiments and experiences. Rim is useful to hold the object with or without food. 
Shape of the rim is important when, “Hattiya” is kept on the hearth and taken if off 
with hot gravy. Not only that but it also helps for staking purposes and the lid can 
rest on it. Orifice angle and the width of the product will help to keep the lid, because 
it provides space and correct angle for the lid to rest on the “Hattiya” well. When 
staking “Hatties”, it has to be turned upside down to remove water inside and to 
stack them well.  Vessel rim is important to bear the heaviness of products when they 
are being stack. Therefore the rim should be made thicker than the other areas of the 
clay structure.  
 
Presently the importance of the orifice has not been considered. It has become a less 
important part of the vessel (but it takes part in entire body). If it has a tiny wall, it 
will break easily when it is hanging. Human anthropometrics has to be considered to 
decide the thickness and the angle of the orifice. Otherwise, people who use the 
object will not be familiar with it. It is a main issue that has to be considered of the 
present products. Orifice should be a rough surface, because the rough texture of that 
surface provide grip when it is held. Following pictures explain the angles and the 
forms of the orifice, of present “Hattiya”. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.62: Sections of Orifices (“Hattiya”) 
 
  
  
  
  
  
    
  
  
  
  
1.5  
   
 114 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Shape and form of the orifice is a main considerable element of clay cooking pots. It 
should consist of a right angle, suitable thickness, required proportion and an 
appropriate texture. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.63: Variety of Orifices (“Hattiya”) 
 115 
3.7.5 Importance of Body, Base and Stability of the “Hattiya” 
 
Body and base are the other important elements of the vessel structure. The area of a 
vessel body can be identified as the area of orifice to base, and also it can be termed 
as belly. “Hattiya” has different types of body shapes but they all look alike. Vessel 
body has a volume. Traditionally outside surface is used to do decorations. In the 
past there were valuable decorations and designs created on top of the surface. When 
it is compared with present situations, design had been used for the surface 
decorations, which did not have any value. However there was a precious tradition. 
People did not pay much attention to the aesthetical pleasing of the products. It is a 
one of the main feature of clay cooking pots. There are six sizes of “Hattiya” used in 
current situation. Potters pay less attention to finish and decorate to small “Hattiya”, 
because they can be sold faster than the large “Hattiya”, with a short period. 
Therefore they do not bother to finish and create designs on them. They spend much 
time to finish and decorate large “Hattiya” consequently large pots are rich with 
design qualities and aesthetical values. People have the talent to create good products 
but they do not consider these factors. 
 
Surface decorations of “Hattiya” 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
a 
b 
 116 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Surface decoration gives the first impression of the product, because the aesthetical 
appearance is also important as the product functionality. Earthenware clay pots can 
have smooth or rough textured surfaces. There is a possibility of cracking the pots 
which have smooth surface during the process of firing. Thickness of the clay body 
(clay compound) provides a cooling effect for the inside surface, as it is an important 
aspect of the clay vessels. It facilitates the quality of warmth and the coolness of the 
product. 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.64: Variety of Surface Decorations Used in “Hattiya” (a,b,c,d) 
Figure 3.65: Section of a clay body 
Outside surface 
Quality of heat absorption/  
water absorption 
  
In side surface 
Facilitate to keep heat 
and coolness 
 
Po
ro
us
 b
od
y 
 
c 
d 
 117 
Body of the “Hattiya” is always fixed with the orifice and the base. Base is also an 
important part of the clay vessel. Wheel throwing product mostly gets a rounded base 
because the bottom part of the object is done manually. Base has direct effects to the 
product stability. The shape of the bottom and the thickness are important for 
handling and staking the object. Body thickness is important for cooking purpose, 
and should not   be a thin surface. Different part of the body need to have different 
thicknesses.  Center of gravity of the “Hattiya” is an important factor for staking 
objects and keeping them on the hearth.  It helps to handle the product in a proper 
manner, with ample confidence. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
(a)                                                                          (b)   
 
 
 
“Hattiya” cannot be kept on a flat surface because it has a curved base. De Silva & 
Dissanayake ( 2008) “The majority of cooking vessels are sphere shaped. These 
vessels have a large basal surface that helps transfer heat to a greater extent. They are 
short and squat” (p.20). Most of the earthenware cooking pots consist of a round 
base. A rounded base is good as it absorbs heat gradually.  
 
 
 
Figure 3.66:   Stability of the “Hattiya” (a/b) 
Center of gravity 
 118 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Rounded base has an advantage, as the round surface is movable or rotatable unlike 
the flat base. Flat base can be damaged easily when rotating the object, because of 
straight angles of the base. It is an advantage of the “Hattiya”. The round base is 
difficult to be kept on a flat base.  Although it is a disadvantage, people have 
overcome these difficulties as they have developed and found innovative solutions to 
them. They use a “Daranuwa” which should be less hard than the clay body to 
obtain the product stability. 
Pots which have round bases can be handled well with gravy food. It is easy to rotate 
and move away when kept on a “Daranuwa”. It also has enough spaces to mix the 
curry when cooking.  Enamel and stainless steel spoons are not good to use with clay 
cooking pots, as both are materials. It would damage the inside surface of the 
“Hattiya” or any other clay pot. It is better to use spoons made out from coconut 
shells (less hard than the fired clay). As these spoons have curved edges, they can be 
used to touch the inside surface of the clay body, when cooking food. 
 
Figure 3.67: Variety of Base Shapes and heat absorption 
F  l  a  m  e 
Heat absorption is faster 
than the round base but 
makes the food dried easily.  
Round base is important for 
absorbing heat gradually 
F  l  a  m  e 
 119 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Cleanliness and maintenance are very important for culinary products, as they should 
be kept always clean and hygienic. Therefore shape and form of the product have to 
be paid more attention as those two factors are very important in cleaning of 
products. “Hattiya” has a round base and the round base is easy to clean. There have 
Easy to damage  
Flat base Round base 
“Daranuwa”  
Figure 3.69 : Use of “Daranuwa” 
Figure 3.68: Spoons made out of coconut shells 
 120 
been some textured which gets corner points and get the restricted form. If it has a 
deep curve it may make a space to deposit food particles and cleaning difficulties 
may also arise. Thus it is a considerable point when designing the clay cooking pots. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
(See Section 2.7.1.3), several types of base shapes can be identified in the present 
“Hattiya”. Most of the base shapes do not consider the usage of the product.  
Product has an angular shape; it cannot be kept on the gas hearth. It can be identified 
as a disadvantage of the product.  
 
Figure 3.71: Variety of Base Shapes of the “Hattiya” 
Figure 3.70: Importance of the Base  
Deposited food particles 
E d g e s  
 121 
Base is also important to the product stability. When staking “Hatties” has to be kept 
upside down, as the orifice can easily rests on the round base. It helps to remove the 
extra water inside the surface and also the product transportation. It is easy to stack 
one by one. When transporting “Hattiya” people use rush and reed in between the 
products to protect them from the damages.  
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
3.7.6 Relationship Between “Hattiya” and Lid 
 
 “Hattiya” cannot be used without a lid. It is an essential part of the culinary items. 
Traditionally it was called “Wahantharawa”, “Karamudiya” (See Section 3.6.3.1). 
Basically lid is used as a covering object but it can be used for different purposes, 
such as to scrape coconut, mixing foods etc.  
Figure 3.72: Product Stacking 
Figure 3.73 : Product Stacking when Transporting 
Rush and Reed layer 
 122 
Different types of lids can be found in the society. Top of the lid has a knob; it helps 
to hang the object. The diameter of the lid depends on the diameter of the orifice. 
There are several sizes of lids available in the market. It has similar shapes and forms 
but it is different from each other’s with sizes. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Earlier people did not use lids to cover the object. Yet they have identified the 
importance of the lid. It helps to reduce the cooking time, reduce fuel consumption, 
and protect the nutrition of the meal. Basically a lid gets a globular shape and it helps 
to formulate the air and steam inside the lid.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Keep the, Nutrition and 
warm steam 
 
Steam 
 
“Hattiya”  
Lid  
Grip  
Grip  
Knob 
Lid Orifice   
Body of the lid 
Orifice  
Body  
Base  
Figure 3.74: Structure of the Lid 
Figure 3.75: Importance of Lid 
 123 
1 Traditional lid fulfills basic requirements, such as cleaning, hanging, well fixed 
to the pot rim. Gradually it was developed in several manners, people made 
different types of lids for different purposes. “Pittu Mudiya” is a good example 
for development of the lid.  Lid is created using with potter’s wheel, but 
occasionally they make the top of the lid by manually and knob is attached in the 
final stage.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.76: variety of  Lids 
 
Figure 3.77: A  Lid from Colombo museum collection 
Figure 3.78: Lid varieties in present usage  
 124 
“Karamudiya” is an essential part of the 
“Hattiya”. Lid is designed for each 
“Hattiya”, because their orifice diameter 
differs from each other. The angle and shape 
of the vessel rim should be considered. If 
they are not in a correct position it will be 
not well fixed in to the vessel rim. 
Manufacturers are less concerned about the 
size and the quality of products. It is a main 
considerable aspect.  Products are decorated 
with Engraving and Hand painting techniques. 
Big “Hattiya” is covered with “Koraha”, 
there are no bigger lids to cover the large 
“Hatiyas”. The knob is an important part of 
the lid when it is using. But it makes 
difficulties when staking. Anthropometrics is 
needed to be considered when manufacturing 
the product. It should be easy to carry, well 
fixed grip are main considerations. They 
have not paid much consideration to 
overcome with design errors in present 
usage products; it is a need of the society.    
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.79: A Lid with decoration 
Figure 3.80: A Lid with decoration 
Figure 3.81: Variety of Surface Decorations in Lids ( a , b) 
a b 
 125 
3.7.7 Current situation of the ‘Hattiya” and Lid 
 
Presently “Hattiya” comes in six sizes and lid comes in four sizes. The size of the 
“Hattiya” is designed according to the family size. Now a day’s families consist of 
less number of members such as two or three. Therefore the size of the product also 
has been changed to facilitate their needs. There had been ten or twelve numbers in 
one family in the past and they had to use larger size culinary products. When 
comparing small and large sizes of “Hattiya”; small “Hattiya” has less design 
qualities, as they have a good market for small size products. They have time to pay 
more attention to the objects which are of large sizes. Although functionality is an 
important aspect of products, people did not consider much about it. Hence problem 
related to the functionality arise when the products are being used.  This drawback 
makes consumers unhappy and disappointed about clay products.  
 
There are two varieties of the product (“Hattiya”) in the present market. They are 
known as polished ware and non polished ware. Polished ware can be identified by 
its shiny surface. Though it has been proposed even for gas cooker, it is still at the 
developments stage. The price of polished ware is also higher than the price of 
ordinary vessels. Following table shows the prices of ordinary “Hatties”. 
 
Table 3.2: Price of Ordinary “Hatties” and Lids 
 
 
“Hattiya” 
 
Size 
 
Price of 
“Hattiya” 
 
Price of lid 
“Karamudiya” 
Type 1 Small 55/= 55/= 
Type 2 Small 65/= 65/= 
Type 3 Medium 95/= 95/= 
Type 4 Large 135/= 135/= 
Type 5 Large 175/= 175/= 
Type 6 Large 350/= 350/= 
 126 
Price depends on the size of the products. Price of the product is gradually increasing 
according to the size of the product. In cost calculation, price of the clay body 
includes the fuel and transportation cost. In the usage of clay cooking pots, the 
quality of heat absorption of products and the fuel material are two important factors 
which have to be considered by the manufacturer as well as the consumers.  Fuel 
material is very important factor in using clay cooking pots, as it has a direct effect 
on the heat absorption of products. If the clay pot has a thick body it has to be kept 
on the hearth for a long time. This will cause fuel wastage, despite whatever the fuel 
material used (gas or wood) 
 
When compared to other cooking pots made out of enamel and aluminum the heat 
absorption capacity of the clay products is low. However people in the current 
society hesitate to use aluminum and enamel objects because of their side effects. 
Therefore they tend to use clay cooking pots to have a healthy life without paying 
much attention to the fuel wastage. 
  
Consumers like to buy new designer products more and more according to present 
needs, through the present clay “Hattiya” does not serve the purpose effectively. 
Identify the current position of the “Hattiya” and identifying their importance is a 
main task of the earthenware industry. Thus it is very important to identify certain 
drawbacks of this specific object “Hattiya” and the ways to overcome them in order 
to produce a product, which is of a good standard.  
  
3.7.8 Size Varieties of Present “Hattiya”  
 
There are six types of “Hattiya” in the current society. The size varies in height and 
width of the object. Their orifices, bellies and base segments have slight differences, 
but more differences can be seen in angle, thickness and shape of the base. 
Sometimes the shape and the proportion of the “Hattiya” vary from place to place. 
The following areas which are famous for earthenware cooking pots have been used 
in this study.  
 
 127 
From Kandy District: Menikhinna, Urispaththuwa, Wattegama, from Kurunegala 
District: Abagaswewa, Paduwasnuwara, from Rathnapura District: Eheliyagoda, 
Nakandala, Gampaha District: Biyagama, Kegalle District : Molagoda  
 
Slight differences can be seen in the product (“Hattiya”) indifferent areas. The 
height, volume and surface decorations vary according to the place where they were 
manufactured. As mention above, “Hattiya” can be classified in to six groups and it 
is common for all areas. From area to area the size variation can be between 1cm and 
1,1/2 cm. It is totally neglected here and, the main value of the product is taken in to 
consideration. The length and width are use to take the mean value. There are no 
significant differences in shape and form of the product in different area 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.82: Size Variations of Present “Hattiya” 
H 
Height 
W 
Width 
Type 
1 
Type 
2 
Type 
3 
Type 
4 
Type 
5 
Type 
6 
Small Size Medium 
 Size 
Large Size 
 128 
When considering the size, there are three types of “Hattiya’” (Type-1, 2, 3) which 
can be used to prepare curries for day-to-day needs, and the other three are used in 
special occasions (for large preparations). Small objects are of less quality but large 
“Hattiya” are of good quality. As a result, small pots can be sold quickly but it takes 
time to sell large pots. Manufacturers have to pay more attention when producing 
large “Hattiya”. This improves the quality of the product. They produce small 
“Hattiya” quickly, without considering product efficiency or functionality of the 
product. This would reduce the usage of earthenware products.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 129 
Type – 1 
(Small Size) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
20 cm 
9 cm 
1.5 cm 0.7 cm 
6 cm 
Scale 1:2 cm 
Figure 3.83: Section of the – “Hattiya” Type - 1 
Figure 3.84: Side View – “Hattiya” Type – 1 (a,b) 
a b 
 130 
Type – 2 
(Small Size) 
 
21 cm 
6.5 cm 
10.5 cm 
4.5cm 3.5cm 
1.5 cm 
Scale 1:2 cm 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.85: Section of the – “Hattiya” Type - 2 
Figure 3.86: Base of the “Hattiya” Type - 2 Figure 3.87: Side View -“Hattiya” Type - 2 
 131 
Type – 3 
(Medium Size) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.88: Section of the – “Hattiya” Type - 3 
 
23 cm 
7 cm 
12 cm 
1 cm 
1 cm 
Scale 1:2 cm  
Figure 3.89: Side View -“Hattiya” Type – 3 (a,b)  
b a 
 132 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
In this research three sizes are used as samples objects, [Type – 1(Small Size), Type 
– 2(Small Size), Type – 3(Medium Size)]. These three types of objects are used for 
daily purposes. A lid or “Wahantharawa” is used to cover the “Hattiya”. Some 
vessels come with simple decorations on the belly. The designs look similar but the 
pots are different in proportion, shape, form and weight.  
 
Type – 4 
(Large Size) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.90: Shape of the Base– “Hattiya” Type - 3 
Figure 3.91: Section of the – “Hattiya” Type - 4 
28 cm 
6 cm 3 cm 
13 cm 
Scale 1:2 cm 
 133 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Type – 5 
(Large Size) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
35 cm 
16 cm 
9 cm 
2.5cm 1cm 
Scale 1:2 cm 
Figure 3.93: Section of the – “Hattiya” Type - 5 
Figure 3.92: Side view -“Hattiya” Type – 4 (a,b) 
 
b a 
 134 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.94: Base of the “Hattiya” Type - 5 
Figure 3.95: Side view of the “Hattiya” Type -5 
b
 
a 
 135 
Type – 6 
(Large Size) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
40 cm 
18 cm 
11 cm 
1cm 
Scale 1:2 cm 
Figure 3.96: Section of the  – “Hattiya” Type - 6 
Figure 3.97: Side View of the “Hattiya” Type -6 (a , b) 
a b 
 136 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
3.7.9 Size Varieties  of Lid 
 
Lid- Small 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3.98: Base of the “Hattiya” Type - 6 
Figure 3.100: Variety of Lids  
Figure 3.99: Section of the - Lid 
18 cm 
18 cm 
18 cm 
18 cm 
Scale 1:2 cm 
2cm 
 137 
3.8 Summery  
 
 
The origin of the earthenware industry and domestic culinary products in Sri Lanka 
has been discussed in detail in this chapter. In this study, “Hattiya” has been focused 
on as the sample object, because still it is used for cooking purpose in most of the 
houses. As a culinary item “Hattiya” is more popular than the other items. Therefore 
the structure of the “Hattiya” has been analyzed here paying attention to other parts 
of it orifice, belly and base. Lid has been analyzed as a supportive object. Basically it 
has discussed the design elements and design principles. Six types of “Hattiya” have 
been thoroughly discussed and three objects of them had been selected for the 
questionnaire. Next chapter will include consumers’ ideas and opinions which were 
collected through the questionnaire survey about the selected objects.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 138 
Chapter Four 
 
METHODOLOGY 
 
4.0 Introduction 
 
This chapter discusses the research method in detail. It includes definitions of key 
factors, the research model, hypothesis testing, questionnaire design, questionnaire 
survey method, method of sample selection and method of data measurement. 
 
4.1 Research Method  
 
Survey is a method of collecting information for describing and analyzing data. 
F.Arlene stated that “Surveys are systems for collecting information to describe, 
compare, and predict attitudes, opinions, values, knowledge, and behavior. An 
essential components of the system is the design or environmental arrangement in 
which data are collected, analyzed, and interpreted. Design can be categorized as 
experimental or descriptive” (p.21).  
 
A survey can be identified as an experimental or a descriptive method. This research 
focuses on collecting information from a selected group, using an existing product 
(“Hattiya” & Lid). It will be to develop and identify people’s achievements, their 
preferences, failures and errors of the present usage product. “Descriptive designs 
produce information on groups and phenomena that already exist. No new groups are 
created. Descriptive designs are also called observational by some surveyors”   
(F.Arlene, 1995, p.23). This research use descriptive research and use statistical 
survey method to collecting data.   
 
The questionnaires focus on Design Elements and Design Principles with a view to 
achieve design efficiency of the product. Product Balance and Proportion can be 
 139 
identified as Design Principles of ceramics products and Value, Texture, Shape and 
Form can be identified as Design Elements. 
 
 
 
 
4.2 Definition of  Key factors 
 
Design Principles and Design Elements (identified in chapter two) are categorized 
under five main factors. Following table presents key factors, variables and 
measurements which are categorized under those main factors. Future analytical 
model will be constructed based on following measurements. 
  
 
 
 
 
Index 
 
Key Factors 
 
Variables 
 
Measurements 
D
es
ig
n 
Pr
in
ci
pl
es
  
Proportion 
Appearance  
(Q-1, Q-9, Q-35) 
• Aesthetical pleasing 
• Functionality 
• Lip and body proportion 
Body • Aesthetical pleasing 
 
Index 
 
The key factors that have to be considered 
Design Principles Proportion 
Balance 
Design Elements Shape & Form 
Texture 
Value 
Table 4.1: Key Factors 
Table 4.2: Definition of Key Factors 
 140 
Base 
Lip  
(Q-13, Q-38) 
• Effect for functionality  
 
Balance 
Structural balance 
(Q-40, Q-42) 
• Thickness of the wall 
• Thickness of the orifice 
• Thickness of the body 
Product balance 
(Q-16) 
• Center of gravity 
• Stability 
• Staking 
• Use of purposes 
 
D
es
ig
n 
El
em
en
ts
 
 
 
Shape & Form 
Gripping 
(Q-3), (Q-11) 
• Angle of the collar (Orifice) 
• Orifice thickness 
• Body angle 
• Surface Texture of Orifice 
and Belly 
Stability 
(Q-4, Q-10, Q-39)  
• Product Balance 
• Staking 
• Center of gravity of the 
product 
Aesthetical 
Pleasing 
Handling and using 
(Q-14) 
• Product Attractive 
• Angles and shapes 
• Outer appearance 
• Easy to pour 
• Space (inside) 
• Cleaning  
• Durability 
Handling and 
Using 
(Q-2, Q-5, Q-7,Q-
• Easy to pour 
• Space availability 
• Cleaning and durability 
 141 
12, Q15)  
 
Product 
identification 
(Q-6) 
 
• Shape/Form 
• Appearance 
• Product colour 
Transport 
(Q-18) 
• Easy to transport 
• Packing 
Fuel wastage 
(Q-8, Q-17)) 
• Shape and Form of the base 
• Body thickness 
• Quality of heat absorption 
 Texture  Gripping 
(Q-21, Q-26) 
• The surface quality of the lip 
area 
Rough & smooth 
surface 
(Q-19, Q-25) 
• Cleaning purposes 
• Easy to handle  
• Heat absorption 
• Thermal shock resist 
• Psychological feelings 
• Aesthetical value 
• The quality of water 
absorption 
Water evaporation 
Heat absorption  
(Q-24) 
• Quality of thermal shock 
Durability  
(Q-23) 
• Strength of the product 
• Hardness 
 
Value  
Aesthetical Value 
(Q-20, Q-27, Q-29, 
• Colour  
• Decorations 
 142 
Q-31) • Texture 
• Surface and surface 
decoration 
Market value 
(Q-49) 
• Price 
Cultural value  
(Q-30, Q-33) 
• Taste 
• Smell 
• Appetizer 
 
Physical value  
(Q-22, Q-32, Q-36, 
Q-37, Q-47) 
 
• Quality of heating & cooling 
effects 
• Thermal shock resist 
• Water absorption 
• Product weight  
Social value 
(Q-28, Q-34, Q-44, 
Q-45, Q-46, Q-48) 
• Healthy life 
• Eco friendly products 
Product quality 
(Q-41) 
• Outer appearance  
• Outer appearance and  
 
4.3 Research Model 
 
This model is based on predetermined specific characteristics related to measure the 
design efficiency of clay cooking pots (“Hattiya”) used in Sri Lanka. Those 
predetermined characteristics are; 
1. Shape and Form 
2. Texture 
3. Value 
4. Proportion 
5. Balance 
 143 
Most of the collected data are qualitative in nature; because this research required a 
statistical method to convert that information to analyzable quantitative data. This 
conversion model is evaluating each individual characteristic with; relevant value 
(weight) factors given by users in the sample group. 
 
Design efficiency  Efficiency of Shape & Form + Efficiency of Texture + 
Efficiency of Value + Efficiency of Prop + Efficiency of Balance. 
 
 
 
 
 
By using a factor, this formula can be balance. This factor must be relating variables 
on right side of the equation to the left side concept.   
 
 
 
 
 
 
Where;   
α = Weight factor given by users 
SH = Value given to each question by sample 
n = Number of questions associated to each variable 
p = Sample size 
 
Accordingly; 
 
 
 
 
 
 144 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
( SH- Shape & Form, TE- Texture, VA- Value, PR- Proportion, BL- Balance) 
 
Where;   
β,δ,φ,σ = Weight factor given by users 
TE, VA, PR, BL = Value given to each question by sample 
j,k,l,m = Number of questions associated to each variable 
p = Sample size 
 
Weight factors calculate as a percentage of each factor value to the total values given 
by sample group; 
 
Example:  
 
 
 
4.4 Hypothesis Testing 
 
• Null Hypothesis:  [Ho]  Design efficiency is an important element to 
product functionality of selected Earthenware cooking pot in Sri Lanka.  
 
• Alternative Hypothesis:  [H1]  Design efficiency is not an important 
element to product functionality of selected Earthenware cooking pot in Sri 
Lanka. 
 145 
4.5 Questionnaire Design & Questionnaire Survey Method 
 
 Questionnaire can be explained as follows; “Questions take one of two primary 
forms. When they require respondents to use their own words, they are called open. 
When they are preselected for the respondent, they are called closed. In general, 
closed questions are considered more efficient and reliable than open questions for 
getting information from groups of people. Both types have advantages and 
limitations”. (Fink, 1995, p.32) 
 
There are two types of questionnaire methods used for collecting data. Questionnaire 
method is selected according to obtain their real opinions and views as they express 
their own feelings. Fink A. (1995) stated that, “An open question allows respondents 
to give answers in their own way. These questions are useful I getting unanticipated 
answers and for describing the world as the respondents really sees it rather than how 
the researcher does. Some respondent also prefer to state their views in their own 
words. Sometimes, the responses provide quotable material” (p.32). Close ended 
questionnaire provides correct data systematically and it produces standardize data 
for statistical analysis. 
 “Closed questions are more difficult to write than open ones because the answers or 
response choices must be known in advance. However, some respondents prefer 
closed questions because they are either unwilling or unable to express themselves 
while being surveyed. Finally, closed questions produce standardize data that can be 
analyzed statistically.” 
(Fink, 1995, p.33) 
 
Open questions consist of the question alone. Closed questions consist of the 
question and the responses. Two types of questionnaires provide for data collection. 
Questionnaire type one is consisted with open ended questioner to establish the 
research question. (See Annexure -1). Questionnaire type Two (See Annexure – 2) is 
consisted with open ended and also the closed ended questionnaire method. Because 
it helps to get a correct answers with details.  
 
 
 
 146 
Question type Two – (See Annexure – 2) 
 
A - The questionnaire (Section – A) consists of general information like; Name, age, 
gender, education qualification, occupation, monthly income, no of family members, 
marital, use of fuel, city of residence.  
 
B - The questionnaire (Section - B) is meant to obtain information about the 
variability and quality of “Hattiya” (present used), relevance of cooking purpose and 
also to achieve design efficiency and developments. The questionnaire focuses on 
Design Principles and Design Elements with a view to achieve design efficiency of 
the product.  
 
This questionnaire survey consists of 50 questions and it is given to 60 houses. They 
are distributed to 30 houses in Kandy and 30 houses in Colombo equally. Sample 
pictures of selected objects are attached to the questionnaire to enable them to supply 
answers easily. They can answer the questions freely as there is no influence. 18 
Males and 42 Females from both Colombo and Kandy will be participated and they 
will be categorized according to the four main age levels. 
 
 
 
No of Participants Age level 
 
15 20-30  Years 
25 31-40  Years 
12 41-50  Years 
08 51-60  Years 
      
                          
Two types of questionnaires are used to collect data in this research. Answers are 
obtained as a joint attempt.  
 
Table 4.3: Age Level Distribution  
 147 
For the convenience of collecting data, method of open ended questionnaires is used. 
Some questions are expected to be answered in writing. It is used to get peoples ideas 
to understand their attitudes and get their suggestions.  
 
4.6 Sample Selection 
 
This survey has been done on 60 people who live in two urban areas in Sri Lanka. 
Questionnaires are given to Kandy and Colombo. Those are the two urban areas 
which are selected for the survey.  
“Urban can be explained as; an urban area is characterized by higher population 
density and vast human features in comparison to areas surrounding it. Urban area 
may be cities, town, or conurbations, but the term is not commonly extended to rural 
settlements, such as village and hamlets.”  
(www.wikipedia.org/wiki/urbanarea) 
  
According to CIA world fact book, it has been declared that the entire population of 
Sri Lanka will be 21, 283,913 (July 2011est) in the year of 2011. According to the 
data in 2010, 14% of local population is urban population. Urban population of 
Kandy is 1,279,028 (in 2001) and area population of Colombo is 2,251,274 (2001). 
According to the data (2002) the city population of Colombo will be 78, 4900 and 
the urban population of Colombo will be 2,40,9000. The city population of Kandy 
will be 1, 52,200 and the urban population of Kandy will be 1, 52,200. 
 
Since most of the villages and other areas have become urbanized presently, people 
tend to move to those urbanized areas due to many reasons. Therefore questionnaires 
have been used in these areas as a research tool.  The people, who live in urban areas, 
lead different life styles. They consume different types of food and use different 
utensils to prepare the food. Preparation methods of food also have been changed 
according to their life style. 
 
As they have realized the advantages of using clay products, they like to use clay 
pots for cooking. But, it is found that, present clay products do not meet the 
 148 
requirements of the consumer, as they lack certain features. So that clay products 
give a hassle to the consumer in preparation of various food items, using modern 
techniques.  
 
(Question type two) Kandy has been selected as a semi urbanized area in this 
research as still can find traditional way of life styles and people who use traditional 
cooking methods in the most areas of Kandy. When Kandy is compared with 
Colombo, it is understood that Colombo is a fully urbanized area and it is socially 
and culturally different from Kandy in many ways. 
 
In order to obtain more reliable information in the research, data should be collected 
from its real users. Therefore in the gender distribution it has a bias towards female 
to select a reasonable (to minimize bias) sample. To match this criteria male is 
picked after every 2 families from houses, as a random sample. Fink (1995) 
explained about the random sampling; “Objective means of choosing a sample and is 
a “fair” way of getting a sample. Members of the target population are selected one 
at a time and independently. Once they have been selected, they are not eligible for a 
second chance and are not returned to the pool. Because of this equality of 
opportunity, random samples are considered relatively unbiased”. (p.69) 
 
Three sizes of the “Hattiya” are taken as samples. Lid is used as a supportive object. 
The objective of the survey is to see, how the Earthenware products can be 
developed to achieve design efficiency and also to see the suitable way of developing 
these selected samples in order to match the present social context.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 149 
4.7 Method of Data Measurement  
 
Ordinal method is used to evaluate the answers. Ordinal is a “Respondents who are 
asked to rate or order choices (say, from very positive to very negative) are given 
ordinal choices” (Fink, 1995, p.36). All questions have five options for the 
respondent to select. They can choose the most appropriate answer from that scale. 
When evaluating those collected data there is 1 to 5 or, 5 to 1 marking system 
through the scale; that depends on whether question is negative or positive.  
 
 
 
 Numbers of  Questionnaire  
 
Negative Question 1 2 3 4 5 21 
Positive Question 5 4 3 2 1 28 
 
 
 
4.8 Questionnaire Development - (Question Type Two) 
 
Two rating questions such as Negative and Positive are mainly used, 27 Positive 
questions and 22 Negative questions are used here. The last question in the 
questionnaire survey is a general question (No-50). The Shape, Form, Texture and 
Value are used as the key factors of the product and these factors are used to assess 
the Design Elements. Balance and Proportion are used as the key factors to assess 
Design Principles.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
Table 4.4: Scale for Positive and Negative Questions 
 
 
 150 
 
 
 
 
Key Factors 
 
Question No. Total of Question 
No. Negative 
Questions 
Positive Questions 
 
Proportion 
Q.No. -  13 Q.No. -  1  
Q.No. -  35 Q.No. -  9  
Q.No. -  38   
Total Q.No. 3 2 5 
 
Balance 
Q.No. -  16 Q.No. -  40  
Q.No. -  42   
Total Q.No. 2 1 3 
 
Shape & Form 
Q.No. - 5 Q.No. -  2  
Q.No. -  7 Q.No. -  3 
Q.No. -  8 Q.No. -  4 
Q.No. -  15 Q.No. -  6 
 Q.No. -  10 
Q.No. -  11 
Q.No. -  12 
Q.No. -  14 
Q.No. -  17 
Q.No. -  18 
Q.No. -  39 
Total Q.No. 4 11 15 
 
Texture 
Q.No. -  21 Q.No. – 19  
Q.No. -  23 Q.No. -  24 
Q.No. -  25  
Q.No. -  26 
Total Q.No. 4 2 6 
Table 4.5: Clarification of Questionaire  
 
 
 151 
 
Value 
Q.No. -  31 Q.No. -  20  
Q.No. -  33 Q.No. -  22 
Q.No. -  36 Q.No. -  27 
Q.No. -  37 Q.No. -  28 
Q.No. -  41 Q.No. -  29 
Q.No. -  44 Q.No. -  30 
Q.No. -  46 Q.No. -  32 
Q.No. -  47 Q.No. -  34 
 Q.No. -  43 
Q.No. -  45 
Q.No. -  48 
Q.No. -  49 
Total Q.No. 8 12 20 
General Question  1 
Total Questionnaire (Question type two ) 50 
 
For the identification of Proportion of the Design Principles six questions have been 
included in the questionnaire survey. These six questions are Q.No.13, 35, 38, 1,9 
and Q.No. 13, 35, & 38 are negative and Q.No.1 & 9 is positive questions. 
 
Three questions have been used to assess Balance which is another concept of 
Design Principles. Q.No. 16, 42 & 40 are asked on that and Q.No. 16 & 42 are used 
as negative questions and Q.No.40 is used as a positive question.  
 
Fifteen questions are used to asses the concepts of Shape and Forms, in order to 
identify the Design Elements. These are Q.No. – 5, 7, 8, 15, 2, 3, 4, 6, 10, 11, 12, 14, 
17, 18, & 39. Out of these questions,  Q.No. 5, 7, 8, & 15 are negative questions and 
Q.No. 2, 3, 4, 6, 10, 11, 12, 14, 17, 18, & 39 are positive questions. 
 
 152 
To assess the Texture of Design Elements of questions have been included. They are 
Q.No.21, 23, 25 ,26, 19, & 24. Out of these questions Q.No. 21, 23, 25, & 26 are 
negative and Q.No. 19 & 24 is positive questions. 
 
For the identification of the product Value 20 questions are used. They are Q.No. 31, 
33, 36, 37, 41, 44, 46, 47, 20, 22, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 34, 43, 45, 48, & 49. from these 
no of questions, Q.No. 31, 33, 36, 37, 41, 44, 46, & 47 are used as negative questions 
and Q.No. 20, 22, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 34, 43, 45, 48, & 49 are used as positive 
questions. Apart from this Q.No. 50 is used as a general question.  
 
For the Proportion of the Design Principles 03 negative questions and 02 positive 
questions have been used. And for the Balance identification 2 negative questions 
and 1 positive question are asked.  
 
4 negative and 11 positive questions are asked on the elements of Shape and Form to 
assess the Design Elements. To identify the Texture of the product 4 negative 
questions and 2positive questions are asked. 8 negative questions and 12 positive 
questions are asked to assess the Value of the product. According to this there are 8 
questions used to assess Design Principles and 41 Questions are used to assess the 
Design Elements of the product.  
 
 
4.9 Summary 
 
This chapter has explained the method of development of questionnaire survey; 
sample selection and data evaluate method in detail. Questionnaire survey helps to 
identify the failures and to establish the developments of the “Hattiya”. It explains 
design elements and design principles in order to identify key factors to develop the 
product. Next chapter will present data analysis method and result of the 
questionnaire survey.  
 
 
 153 
Chapter Five 
 
DATA ANALYSIS  
5.0 Introduction 
 
This chapter includes all data collected through structured questionnaires. Statistical 
analysis is used as a main analytical method. “Statistic is the mathematics of 
organizing and interpreting numerical information. The results of statistical analyses 
are descriptions, relationships, comparison, and predictions” (Fink , 1995, p.1). The 
questionnaire was given to people (about 60 numbers) who live in urban areas in the 
Kandy and Colombo districts (See Section  4.5). Chi-Square method is used as a data 
analysis method to find out the main key considerations. Data will be described using 
diagrams and charts.  
 
 
5.1 Sample Distribution 
 
This is the data presentation of selected sample. The following tables and charts 
present information of the distribution of basic data among the participants of 
questionnaire survey (See Annexure – 2). 
 
5.1.1 Sample Selection for Questionnaire  
 
The table and figure represent the sample selection used for questionnaire survey. 
The questionnaire is distributed among 30 participants who have been selected at 
random from the Kandy district and also among 30 participants from Colombo. 
 
Research is select equal amount of participants to the questionnaire from Kandy and 
Colombo. Among these equal amounts research use random sampling method to 
select reasonable sample. Following charts demonstrate clarity of these sample 
groups.  
 154 
 
 
 
Name of the City 
No. of 
Participants % 
Kandy 30 50 
Colombo 30 50 
Total 60 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
5.1.2 Sample Distribution of Gender  
 
 
Gender  
Cities  Total 
K & C kandy  Colombo 
  No % No % No % 
Male  8 26.7 10 33.3 18 30 
Female 22 73.3 20 66.7 42 70 
Total 30 100 30 100 60 100 
       
 
 
50%50%
Kandy
Colombo
Table 5.1: Sample Selection  
 
Figure 5.1: Sample Selection 
 
Table 5.2: Sample Distribution of Gender  
 
 
 
 
 155 
 
When selecting sample research try to keep % of male around 30%; as research 
would be collect data from its real users to get more reliable information. As a result 
gender distribution more bias forwards female to select a reasonable (to minimize 
biasness) sample to match this criteria research pick a male after every 2 families 
from random houses. This maintains quality of randomness within the sample.   
 
70% of participants are female; because this questionnaire is filled by house wives 
they usually engaged in cooking. 30% samples represent the male. The pie-charts 
show the samples of gender distribution. According to this data it can be identified 
most of the clay cooking pots are used by females in Sri Lanka. 
Figure 5.2: Sample Distribution of Gender  
 
 
 
30%
70%
   
 
33%
67%
 
   
27%
73%
 
Kandy & Colombo 
   
 
Male Female
Kandy  
Colombo 
 156 
5.1.3 Sample Distribution of Age Group   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Age 
Distribution  
Kandy Colombo Total 
Total 
Male  Female  Male  Female  
Kandy Colombo 
M / F M / F K & C 
No % No % No % No % No % No % No % 
< 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 10 0 0.00 2 6.67 2 3.33 
20 - 30 2 25 6 27.3 2 20 2 10 8 26.67 4 13.3 12 20 
31 -40  4 50 12 54.5 5 50 9 45 16 53.33 14 46.7 30 50 
41 - 50 1 13 2 9.09 2 20 5 25 3 10.00 7 23.3 10 16.7 
51 - 60 1 13 1 4.55 1 10 2 10 2 6.67 3 10 5 8.33 
61 < 0 0 1 4.55 0 0 0 0 1 3.33 0 0 1 1.67 
Total 8 100 22 100 10 100 20 100 30 100.00 30 100 60 100 
Table 5.3: Sample Distribution of Age Group  
Kandy & Colombo 
    
 
0%
27%
53%
10%
7%
3%
Kandy 
   
7%
13%
47%
23%
10% 0%
 
  
  
  
  
 
    
  
3%
20%
50%
17%
8% 2%
< 20
20 - 30
31 -40 
41 - 50
51 - 60
61 <
    
  
2
3
4
5
6
Kandy & Colombo 
Colombo 
Figure 5.3: Sample Distribution of Age Group  
 157 
This sample shows that 53% of participants represent the age group between 31-40 in 
Kandy and 47% represents same age group in Colombo. Then the overall percentage 
is 50 from the both districts. But those belong to the age group below 20 years age 
are 3% in Kandy and Colombo. The age group between 20years and 30 years the 
represented by 20% and, this is the second main group in the selected sample. The 
age limit between 41 and 50is represented as 17% in Kandy and Colombo. The 
overall sample presents 8% for the age of 51 and 60. The age group above 61 years 
of age is 2%. 
 
 
 
5.1.4 Sample Distribution of Educational Qualifications  
 
 
 
 
Education 
Qulif. 
Kandy Colombo Total 
No % No % No % 
O/L 9 30 5 16.7 14 23.3 
A/L 7 23.3 7 23.3 14 23.3 
Diploma 5 16.7 5 16.7 10 16.7 
Degree 4 13.3 6 20 10 16.7 
Masters 3 10 4 13.3 7 11.7 
PhD 2 6.67 3 10 5 8.33 
Total 30 100 30 100 60 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Table 5.4: Sample Distribution of Educational Qualifications  
 158 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 5.4 Pie- Chart represents the education distribution of the selected sample. In 
Kandy and Colombo 23% qualified of O/L and 23% qualified with A/L, it gets same 
Kandy 
Figure 5.4: Sample Distribution of Educational Qualifications  
30%
23%
17%
13%
10%
7%
17%
17%
20%
13%
10%
23%
  
  
23%
23%
17%
17%
12%
8%
Colomb
o 
Kandy & Colombo 
O/L
A/L
Diploma
Degree
Masters
PhD
 159 
average. 17% of participants had a Diploma and Degree. 12% had a master degree 
and 8% had PhD qualifications. In overall sample most of people are educated.   
 
5.1.5 Sample Distribution of Occupation  
 
 
Area of 
Occupation  
Kandy  Colombo  
Total 
Kandy  Colombo 
Male  Female Male  Female M / F M / F 
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % 
Government 2 25 8 36.4 1 10 6 30 10 33.3 7 23.3 
Private 3 37.5 6 27.3 4 40 11 55 9 30 15 50 
Self Work 1 12.5 3 13.6 4 40 1 5 4 13.3 5 16.7 
Not Work 2 25 5 22.7 1 10 2 10 7 23.3 3 10 
Total 8 75 22 100 10 100 20 100 30 100 30 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Table 5.5: Sample Distribution of Occupation  
 160 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
This sample represents a big contrast between the government sector in Kandy and 
private sector in Colombo (50%). Kandy and Colombo 28% are employed in 
government sector and 40% work in the private sector. The 15% of participants are 
self-employers. 17% of people have been recognized as unemployed.  
Figure 5.5: Sample Distribution of Occupation  
Kandy & Colombo 
34%
30%
13%
23%
   
23%
50%
17%
10%
  
  
Kandy 
Colombo 
   
y   
28%
40%
15%
17%
Kandy & Colombo 
   
Government
Private
Self Employed 
Un Employed 
 161 
 
 
5.1.6 Sample Distribution of Monthly Income  
 
Monthly Income  
Kandy Colombo Total 
No % No % No % 
< 20,000 8 26.7 4 13.3 12 20 
21,000 - 30,000 7 23.3 4 13.3 11 18.3 
31,000 - 45,000 5 16.7 4 13.3 9 15 
46,000 - 55,000 6 20 10 33.3 16 26.7 
55,000 < 4 13.3 8 26.7 12 20 
Total 30 100 30 100 60 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Table 5.6: Sample Distribution of Monthly Income  
 
 162 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 5.6: Sample Distribution of Monthly Income  
   
27%
23%
17%
20%
13%
 
  
  
  
 
    
13%
13%
34%
27%
13%  
  
  
  
 
Kandy & Colombo 
Kandy 
Colombo 
   
  
20%
18%
15%
27%
20%
    
< 20,000
21,000 - 30,000
31,000 - 45,000
46,000 - 55,000
55,000 <
 163 
From this figures (5.6), it is seen that 20% of participants from Kandy and Colombo 
draw monthly income less than Rs. 20,000/=. 18% of participants draw an income 
between Rs.21, 000- Rs.30,000 per month. It is also seen 15% of people get Rs. 
31,000- Rs. 45,000 as their monthly income, and 27% of participant get Rs. 46,000 
to 55,000 as monthly income and more than Rs. 55,000 per month get 20% both in 
Kandy and Colombo. 
 
 
 
 
5.1.7 Sample Distribution of  Number of Family Members  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
No. of 
Family 
Members 
Kandy Colombo Total No. of Members  
No. of 
Families 
Total No. of 
Members No. of 
Families 
Total No. of 
Members Kandy & Colombo 
No  % No % No  % 
1 3 3 10.00 5 5 16.67 8 13.33 
2 6 12 20.00 7 14 23.33 13 21.67 
3 15 45 50.00 12 36 40.00 27 45.00 
4 2 8 6.67 2 8 6.67 4 6.67 
5 2 10 6.67 2 10 6.67 4 6.67 
6 1 6 3.33 1 6 3.33 2 3.33 
7 1 7 3.33 1 7 3.33 2 3.33 
Total  30   100.00 30   100.00 60 100.00 
Table 5.7: Sample Distribution of Number of Family Members  
 164 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The largest area of the pie-chart represents the no. of families which consist of 3 
members it is 45% in both Colombo and Kandy districts. It also shows families 
consists of 1 are 13% and families consists of 2 are 22% in the selected sample. 
Families who have 4 members can be seen as 10% and those are have 5 and 6 
members can be seen as 5% of the sample.  
Figure 5.7: Sample Distribution of Number of Family Members  
Kandy & Colombo 
Kandy & Colombo 
   
 
10%
20%
50%
10%
3%
7% 0%
Colombo 
Kandy 
17%
23%
40%
10%
7%
3% 0%
 
 
 
 
 
 
   
   
13%
22%
45%
10%
5%
5% 0%
 
 
 
4 Persons
5 Persons
6 Persons
1 Person
2 Persons
3 Persons
 
 
 
 165 
5.1.8 Sample Distribution of Energy Usage for Cooking Purpose 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Energy 
Usage 
Kandy Colombo Total 
No. % No. % Total % 
Wood 5 16.7 2 6.67 7 11.7 
LP Gas 19 63.3 24 80 43 71.7 
Electricity 4 13.3 4 13.3 8 13.3 
Kerosene  2 6.67 0 0 2 3.33 
Total 30 100 30 100 60 100 
Table 5.8: Sample Distribution of Energy Usage for Cooking Purpose 
 
Figure 5.8: Sample Distribution of Energy Usage for Cooking Purpose 
      
 
12%
72%
13%
3%
     
13% 7%0%
80%
 
 
Kandy & Colombo 
Kandy 
Colombo 
      
 
17%
63%
13%
7%
 
 
      
 
Wood
LP Gas
Electricity
Kerosene 
 166 
The pie-charts display the samples of energy usage. According to the data shown 
here 63% of people in Kandy and 80% of people in Colombo is use LP gas for their 
cooking. Overall 72% of people use LP gas the main energy for cooking and 13% 
use electricity, 12% use wood and 3% use kerosene for the purpose of cooking.  
 
 
 
5.2 Data Records of the Survey 
 
The following records are evaluated data of the sample. This data were collected 
while considering Design Elements and Design Principles of the “Hattiya” on two 
selected area according to the method which is mentioned in the chapter four.  
 
 
5.2.1 Survey Data of Key Factors 
 
Table (5.9) and Figure (5.9) shows the findings of questionnaire No.50 in the 
questionnaire survey. It is a common question and it described the validity of focused 
factors are given from their experiences; they have expressed their suggestions too.  
 
α, β, δ, φ, σ represent wait age factor of Shape & Form (α), Texture 
(β), Value (δ), proportion (φ), and (σ) balance represent. This figure identified to 
balance respectively. This figure identified to balance proportionate equations as 
shown in chapter Four. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 167 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Key Factors    
Kandy Colombo K & C 
Total % Total % Value % 
Shape & Form α 167 28.07% 170 27.96% 337 28.01% 
Texture β 148 24.87% 155 25.49% 303 25.19% 
Value δ 120 20.17% 122 20.07% 242 20.12% 
Proportion φ 76 12.77% 73 12.01% 149 12.39% 
Balance σ 84 14.12% 88 14.47% 172 14.30% 
Total    595  100.00% 608 100.00%  1203 100.00% 
   
Shape & Form
Texture
Value
Proportion
Balance
   
28.01%
25.19%
20.12%
12.39%
14.30%
  
   
28.07%
24.87%
20.17%
12.77%
14.12%
Kandy 
   
27.96%
25.49%
20.07%
12.01%
14.47%
Colombo 
Table 5.9: Data of Key Factors of the Survey 
 
Figure 5.9: Data of Key Factors of the Survey 
 
 168 
Above pie-chart shows the importance of the factors with regard to the selected 
sample (“Hattiya”). In the rating, people of Kandy and Colombo are given similar 
rating. Shape & Form can be identified as most important facts of the Product 
(“Hattiya”). Next important factors will be Texture, Value and Balance as they are 
rated at 2nd, 3rd, and 4th places. Proportion is rated as 5th, although it is the least 
important factor to the considered of the product.  
 
5.2.2 Survey Data of Shape & Form 
 
 
Table (5.9) explained Importance of the Shape and Form of the product is shown in 
the table. Following calculation provides an input to analysis the design efficiency of 
the Shape & Form.  
     ∑ SHi .= 3510 
   Number of Q. n .= 15 
     ∑ SHi/n .= 234 
   Sample Size p .= 60 
Efficiency of Shape and Form =  (∑ SHi/n)/p .= 3.9 
Q.No 
Positive 
/ 
Negative 
Ranking 
SHi 
1 2 3 4 5 
2 P 0 1 5 50 4 237 
3 P 0 4 6 10 40 266 
4 P 2 2 8 12 36 258 
5 N 4 5 4 12 35 249 
6 P 2 3 9 12 34 253 
7 N 0 2 4 20 34 266 
8 N 4 6 12 28 10 214 
10 P 3 8 18 29 2 199 
11 P 0 2 8 28 22 250 
12 P 1 5 8 18 28 247 
14 P 3 5 15 17 20 226 
15 N 2 6 12 17 23 233 
17 P 6 12 10 19 13 201 
18 P 6 12 15 25 2 185 
39 P 1 4 15 28 12 226 
Table 5.10: Survey Data of Shape & Form  
 
 169 
5.2.3 Survey Data of Texture 
 
 
 
Q.No 
Positive 
/ 
Negative 
Ranking 
TEi 
1 2 3 4 5 
19 P 3 7 9 19 22 230 
21 N 4 9 13 22 12 209 
23 N 6 10 12 18 14 204 
24 P 2 8 3 12 35 250 
25 N 6 11 7 17 19 212 
26 N 5 7 8 21 19 222 
 
This is the survey result of Texture and following calculation provides an input to 
analysis the design efficiency of the Texture. 
 
 
 
     ∑ TEi .= 1327 
   Number of Q. j .= 6 
     ∑ TEi/j .= 221.1667 
   Sample Size p .= 60 
Efficiency of Texture  =  (∑ TEi/j)/p .= 3.6861 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
Table 5.11: Survey Data of Texture  
 
 170 
5.2.4 Survey Data of Value 
 
 
Q.No 
Positive 
/ 
Negative 
Ranking 
VAi 
1 2 3 4 5 
20 P 12 15 16 15 2 160 
22 P 8 17 8 18 9 183 
27 P 6 8 13 20 13 206 
28 P 0 4 9 22 25 248 
29 P 6 12 13 15 14 199 
30 P 2 5 10 18 25 239 
31 N 3 8 12 19 18 221 
32 P 0 2 12 19 27 251 
33 N 2 6 19 25 8 211 
34 P 5 10 15 14 16 206 
36 N 3 9 11 16 21 223 
37 N 12 8 12 20 8 184 
41 N 5 7 11 23 12 204 
43 P 2 5 21 20 12 215 
44 N 2 3 14 20 21 235 
45 P 2 3 11 19 25 242 
46 N 2 5 17 11 25 232 
47 N 2 4 19 20 15 222 
48 P 4 3 16 22 15 221 
49 P 3 9 12 21 15 216 
 
Table 5.11 displays details of the factor of value. in the questionnaire survey 20 
questions are used to mention the product value. Following calculation provides an 
input to analysis the design efficiency of the Value.  
     ∑ VAi .= 4318 
   Number of Q. k .= 20 
     ∑VAi/k .= 215.9 
   Sample Size p .= 60 
Efficiency of Value  =  (∑ VAi/k)/p .= 3.5983 
 
 
 
Table 5.12: Survey Data of Value 
 
 171 
5.2.5 Survey Data of Balance 
 
 
 
Q.No 
Positive 
/ 
Negative 
Ranking 
BLi 
1 2 3 4 5 
16 N 6 3 8 24 19 227 
40 P 4 8 11 22 15 216 
42 N 29 23 6 2 0 101 
 
 
In the Questionnaire survey, there are three which are used to ask about the product 
Balance. This calculation shows the analysis of design efficiency of the Balance. 
 
 
     ∑ BLi .= 544 
   Number of Q. m .= 3 
     ∑BLi/m .= 181.3333 
  
 
Sample 
Size p .= 60 
 
      PRi 
   Number of Q. l 
      PRi/l 
   Sample Size p 
Efficiency of Proportion  =  (∑ PRi/l)/p 
 
 
The table and figure describe the importance of selected design factors (DE / DP) in 
clay cooking pots (“Hattiya”). 
 
 
Table 5.13: Survey Data of Balance 
 
 172 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 173 
5.3 Summary of Five selected Design Factors of “Hattiya” 
 
 
    
     
Elements & 
Principles Average Weight 
Observed 
Value Expected 
Shape & Form 3.9 28.01% 1.1 0.85 
Texture 3.69 25.19% 0.93 0.76 
Value 3.6 20.12% 0.73 0.61 
Proportion 2.99 12.39% 0.38 0.38 
Balance 3.03 14.30% 0.44 0.43 
 17.21 100.00% 3.58 3.03 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure (No. 5.10) shows that the observed value (obtain trough the questionnaire) 
is higher than the expected value of the product. 
 
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
1.25
Shape & Form
Texture
ValueProportion
Balance
Observed WA
Expected
Table 5.15: Summary of the Analysis 
Figure 5.10: Summary of the Analysis of Five Selected Factors of “Hattiya” 
 
 
Value 
 174 
5.4 Hypothesis Testing 
 
 
            
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Shape & Form
Texture
Value
Proportion
Balance
Observed WA 1.1 0.93 0.73 0.38 0.44
Weight 28.01% 25.19% 20.12% 12.39% 14.30%
Avarage 3.9 3.69 3.6 2.99 3.03
Shape & Form Texture Value Proportion Balance
 
 
 
 
This research; 
 
• Null Hypothesis:  [Ho]  Design efficiency is an important element to 
product functionality of selected Earthenware cooking pot in Sri Lanka.  
 
• Alternative Hypothesis:  [H1]  Design efficiency is not an important 
element to product functionality of selected Earthenware cooking pot in Sri 
Lanka. 
 
Selected hypothesis testing method is Chi-Square method associate with observation 
value and expected value. 
 
Table 5.16: Importance of the Design Facts of “Hattiya” 
 
Figure 5.11: Importance of the Design Facts of “Hattiya” 
 175 
“The Chi-Square test is used to determine whether there is a significant difference 
between the expected frequencies and the observed frequencies in one or more 
categories.”  
 Marben, A. F. (2012) 
 
 
 
O = Observation Value, E = Expected Value, X = Chi 
 
This analysis is done with three decimal degrees. So expected value for success is 
taken as 0.000001.  
 
    
       
Elements & 
Principles O E O-E (O-E)
2 (O-E)2/E 
 
Shape & Form 0.85 1.1 0.25 0.0625 0.073529  
Texture 0.76 0.93 0.17 0.0289 0.038026  
Value 0.61 0.73 0.12 0.0144 0.023607  
Proportion 0.38 0.38 0.00 0.0000 0.000000  
Balance 0.43 0.44 0.01 0.0001 0.000233  
 3.03 3.58 0.55 X2 0.135395 
 
   
Degree of freedom associated with above table is 4 and relevant chi-square figured 
15 %. That prove 95% of probability is to accepting Null Hypothesis. This emphasis 
design efficiency is an important element of functional use of product. And these 
results’ indicate people are more aware in shape and form, rather than the other 
factors of the products. The observation value of that variable is higher than the 
researcher’s expected value. On the other hand observation of proportion of the 
Table 5.17: Hypothesis Model 
 176 
object is equal to the expected values of the research. However it is the lowest 
expected element, of the other variables.   
 
 
 
5.5 Summary  
 
This chapter has described and analyzed the result of the particular questionnaire 
survey. According to the data analysis it is clearly understood that certain specific 
qualities have to be paid more attention, to obtain a significant development of the 
product (“Hattiya” and Lid). Thus the specific aspects such as shape, form, texture, 
balance and value of the product have been considered mainly, and the order of 
priority has also been determined in the analysis part. The experiences and the 
attitudes of the people have been studied for the analysis. Chi-Square analysis 
method has been used to test the sample. 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 177 
Conclusion 
Sri Lanka is a developing country in which urbanization takes place rapidly. Thus, 
there have been significant changes in life style of the people consequently. It has led 
them to have changes in their attitudes and traditions too. Numerous changes have 
taken place in their day today life, living patterns and also their needs and desires, 
have become subjected to change. Urbanization shows a direct impact on traditional 
way of cooking too. “Earthenware clay cooking pots” had been the main cooking 
utensils in traditional ways of cooking in Sri Lanka. Therefore they had played a 
huge role in conventional methods of cooking. As clay is an eco friendly material, it 
is undisputable that clay pots are good for preparing food. They are well known for 
their hygienic quality, too.   
However, it is understood that present clay products are not in the position to cater to 
the needs of the people due to several drawbacks. This situation has made the people 
use alternative products for preparation of food particularly. It has been revealed that 
there are several factors such as product quality, energy efficiency problem, attitudes, 
and the design problems (efficiency and functionality), which have a huge effect on 
the earthenware vessels. It has been further revealed these factors play a vital role 
and if they are not considered much there will be a failure of the earthenware vessels 
in the modern society. The process of designing a product for the market (Design for 
market- DFM) is very important, when the designer’s aim is to create a product for a 
commercial purpose. The different mix of variables involve in the DFM process in 
the manufacturing process of earthenware vessels (process of clay cooking pots).  
Despite the attraction for other alternative products people still prefer clay products, 
as they are good for health and also can be used for a prolonged period. However 
people always expect high quality clay products which come in good shape and form 
in order to use them with ease.  
Hence this research has made an attempt to identify the prevailing situation of clay 
cooking pots and possible ways of developing the industry. It has been identified the 
specific features of selected product that have to be developed to achieve the aim. 
Data has been collected through a questionnaire survey which was carried out in 
selected urban areas. Number of people who were selected for the study was given 
this questionnaire survey. The clay cooking pot “Hattiya” has been used as the 
 178 
sample object and the “Lid” has been used as the supportive object in this study. The 
clay pot “Hattiya” was selected as it is more commonly used than other clay cooking 
pots.  
As design elements and design principles are key factors of a good product, the 
closely related aspects of a ceramic product were taken in to consideration. Therefore 
the aspects such as shape, form, texture, value and balance were studied relating 
them to the orifice, the belly, and the base of the clay product “Hattiya”. 
Chi-Square testing method was used to test those obtained data. It has been proved 
through this analysis; shape, form, texture, balance and value are the most 
considerable aspects of a product respectively. Although “Hattiya” is in much use, it 
needs further improvements, taking shape, form, texture, balance and value as its key 
considerations to achieve design efficiency.  
This research is focused on identifying the design efficiency of the product and 
several variables involved in Sri Lankan earthenware market.   According to the 
research which has been done on the vessels “Hattiya” and lid, people expect more 
(more than 75%) efficiency out of its shape and form. In addition to these qualities 
people expect more from the texture and the value of those variables. The shape, 
form, texture, value and the balance are considerable key factors for a designer who 
needs to make a marketable earthenware cooking product. It has been proved that 
these key considerations are common to all the earthenware cooking pots, and need 
much attention in developing the product further. These criteria can be used to 
improve the quality of earthenware clay cooking pots. It will make people appreciate 
and adore clay products immensely.  
Scope and limitations 
Manufacturing limitations have to be considered mainly in applying design theories 
to a product as they matter a lot in this work. Particularly, technical and material 
limitations have to be considered and improvements have to be taken place 
accordingly.  
Future research 
In this research, key components which are required to develop clay cooking pots 
according to the function of them have been identified. Nevertheless, it will have to 
be further studied as, how these key factors can be developed making suitable for the 
 179 
product functionality and a designer product. A part from this, further studies can be 
continued on body composition, manufacturing methods and technological 
development, of clay products. They are invaluable in developing earthenware clay 
cooking pots and also to reestablish the earthenware industry, in Sri Lanka. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 180 
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 183 
Annexure – 1 
Questionnaire Type –One 
(Section – A) 
Name: 
Age: 
Education Qualifications: 
Gender: 
Occupation: 
Monthly Income: 
No. of Family Members: 
 
(Section – B) 
 
1. What types of containers do you use for cooking Purposes? 
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………… 
 
2. Do you like to use clay pots for the cooking purposes? If yes why; 
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………… 
 
3. Do these products (Clay cooking pots) serve functional purposes? 
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………… 
 
4. It is believed that there is time and fuel wastage when using clay cooking 
pots; is this true?, But still people use clay cooking pots. Is there any reason 
for that?  
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………… 
 
5. People have realized the advantages of using clay pots, and they like to use 
them. But many of them hesitate to use them frequently. How do you respond 
to this situation? 
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………… 
 
6.  In the past three months how often did you buy “Hattiya”, “Muttiya”, 
“Athiliya” or a Lid? 
………………………………………………………………………………… 
………………………………………………………………………………… 
 
 184 
 ) 
Annexure – 2  
Questionnaire Type –Two 
These questionnaire data are only used for internal research of the University of 
Moratuwa. All information obtained on the study will be kept confidential and used 
for research purpose only.  
Information- (Section – A) 
Name: 
 Gender:  
Age:  
Occupation In: 
Education Qualifications: 
Monthly Income: 
No of Family Members: 
Use of Fuel for Cooking: 
City of residence: 
 
 
This questionnaire focuses on earthenware cooking pots and their purposes.  
“Hattiya” is selected as a main research item in this research.  
Thank you for your willingness to participate. Your cooperation is very important to 
the success of this study. Please answer the questions frankly and accurately. Some 
of the questions require written answers and others can be answered by using tick (    
). Please choose most appropriate answer to reflect your view.  
(Section – B) 
 
 
1. Orifice is an essential part of the “Hattiya”. 
 
 
 
2. It is necessary to have an unrestricted orifice to pour the curry from the 
“Hattiya”. 
 
 
     
 
Not at all 
important  
Not very 
important  
Some what 
important 
Very 
important 
Extremely 
important 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Wood Gas Electricity Kerosene 
Male Female 
20-30 <20 31-40 41-50 51-60 61< 
55,000
 
46,000-
 
31,000-
 
21,000-
 
<20,00
 
 
 
Kandy Colombo   
O/L A/L Diploma Degree PhD Masters 
Unemployed Government   Private Self Employed 
 185 
3. What is your opinion about the grip of the lip of the present “Hattiya”. 
 
 
 
 
4. The shape of the lip is helpful for staking. 
  
 
 
5. There is enough space inside the given samples to mix the curry well; 
 
 
 
6. Select the most suitable shape for a body shape of a “Hattiya” from the 
following objects. 
( underline). 
  
 
 
 
7. It is easy to clean curve edges of the “Hattiya” properly. 
  
 
 
 
8. The “Hattiya” can be used on the gas cooker easily as its ‘base’ has the correct 
shape. 
 
 
 
 
9. What is the most suitable shape for a ‘base’ of a “Hattiya” underline the correct 
shape?  
 
 
 
 
 
 
Give your reasons for your selection. 
In good 
condition 
Not need 
to develop 
Neutral  
 
Rather 
good 
 
Need to 
develop 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
     
     
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
 186 
 ……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
………………………… 
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
………………………… 
 
10. The ‘base’ is suitable for staking purpose, as it has a correct shape. 
 
 
 
11. The ‘collar’ of the “Hattiya” helps us to hold it easily. If the lip collar is very 
thick it could easily break 
  
 
 
What are your experience regarding that; 
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………… 
12. The body form helps to identify the product. ( where it is “Hattiya”, “Muttiya”, 
“Athiliya”) 
 
 
 
13. The height of the collar of the present “Hattiya” is good for easy handling. 
 
 
 
14. The body form makes the product attractive. 
 
 
 
15. If the body form has a good finish, is handling the convenient for the user. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Extremely 
not good 
  
Not good  Neutral  
 
Good  
 
Extremely 
good 
Not 
 
Less 
 
Neutral Important 
 
Extremely 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
 187 
16. The “Hattiya” which is presently used has a good balance. 
 
 
 
17. The Form and the Shape of the base lead to the wastage of more fuel. 
 
 
 
18. Overall shape of the present “Hattiya” is suitable for transportation.  
 
 
19. Textured surface make problems in cleaning the object (“Hattiya”) 
 
 
 
 
20. The quality of the clay body can be recognized by the colour of the product. 
 
 
 
21. Have you ever considered the texture of the lip of the “Hattiya” that are used 
presently?  
 
 
 
22. Heat absorption depends on the quality of the body surface. 
 
 
 
23. People consider texture of the product when they buy a pot. 
 
 
 
24. Is the inside surface texture of the “Hattiya” is important for cooking purposes. 
  
 
 
  
25. The “Hattiya” which is presently available in market has a good texture. 
 
 
Extremely 
 
Disagree Neutral Agree  Extremely 
 
 
Not agree Some what agree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Not 
 
Some suite Some what suite  Suite Well suite 
 
Not consider Less consider Neutral Consider  Well 
 
Not agree Some what agree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Not consider Less consider Neutral Consider  Well 
 
Not 
 
Less 
 
Neutral Important 
 
Extremely 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
 188 
 
26. It is not very important factor to have the lip with texture to achieve grip. 
  
 
  
27. Colour  gives an aesthetic value to the product. 
 
 
 
 
28. A healthy life can be lived if we eat food cooked in clay pots’ 
 
 
 
What do you think? 
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
……………………… 
 
29.  Surface decoration is important for the appearance of the product. 
 
 
 
30. In spite of the fuel wastage by cooking food in a “Hattiya” it makes food tasty 
and more nutritious. 
 
 
 
 
31. The colour of the “Hattiya” would not increase one’s appetite when cooking and 
serving food. 
 
 
 
32. When the “Hattiya” is covered by a lid, food can be cooked easily and it will 
also reduce the wastage of nutrients of food. 
 
 
 
 
 
Not true Not very true No idea True  Extremely 
 
Not 
 
Less 
 
Neutral Important 
 
Extremely 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree 
 
Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Strongly 
 
Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
 189 
33. Food cannot be served warm. 
 
 
 
34. Do you consider environmental effect of disposition, when you purchasing the 
product.  
 
 
 
 
35. Ones the “Hattiya” is covered with the lid, the proportion is properly finished of 
the entire object. 
 
 
 
36. Thermal resistance is a disadvantage of earthenware clay pot. 
 
 
 
37. The present “Hattiya” has an appropriate weight 
 
 
 
38. Do you feel the lip of the “Hattiya” has been finished in order to match the body 
appearance of it?  
 
 
39. Do you think curve base adds an additional value to the heat absorption of the 
product? 
 
 
 
40. The lip collar balance has an effect on the quality of the entire product. 
 
 
  
41. The present “Hattiya” can be used in the kitchen as well as in the pantry/ to 
serve food. 
 
 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Never consider Not 
 
Neutral Consider  Extremely 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
 190 
  
42. As the base is round of the “Hattiya”, it has to be kept on a mat -“Dharanuwa” 
(a“Hattiya” which contains food). 
 
 
 
43. Do you think by purchasing a clay pot, you help develop local industry?  
 
 
 
 
 
 
44. What do you feel availability of clay products. 
  
 
 
 
45. Is a clay pot suitable for sophisticated and dynamic life styles, in modern society? 
 
 
 
 
46. Using clay pots is social threat for your status. 
 
 
 
 
47. Property of fragility is one of main disadvantages of using clay products. 
 
 
 
 
 
48. Do you feel, serving foods in clay pots is a fashion in modern society? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Never No No idea Yes  Extremely 
 
Not need 
to 
 
In good 
condition 
Neutral Need to 
develop 
Extremely 
need to 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree  Strongly 
 
Extremely 
 
False No 
 
True  Extremely 
  
 191 
49. What do you think about price of “Hattiya” available in the market? 
 
 
 
 
50. How do you consider the following conditions when buying cooking pots from 
the market? Give one to five rating. 
 
Shape/ Form 
Texture 
Value 
Proportion  
Balance 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Extremely not 
reasonable 
Not 
reasonable 
No 
idea 
Reasonabl
e 
Extremely 
reasobnable 
 
 
 
 
 
 192 
Annexure  - 3 
“Hattiya”  
Type – 1 
(Small Size) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
20 cm 
9 cm 
1.5 cm 0.7 cm 
6 cm 
Scale 1:2 cm 
 193 
Annexure  - 4 
“Hattiya”  
Type -2 
(Small Size) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
21 cm 
6.5 cm 
10.5 cm 
4.5cm 3.5cm 
1.5 cm 
Scale 1:2 cm 
 194 
Annexure  -5 
“Hattiya”  
Type – 3 
(Medium Size) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
23 cm 
7 cm 
12 cm 
1 cm 
1 cm 
Scale 1:2 cm  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 195 
 
Annexure  - 6 
A lid - Small Size 
 
 
18 cm 
18 cm 
18 cm 
18 cm 
Scale 1:2 cm 
2cm