DEVELOPMENT OF A TESTING PROCEDURE TO EVALUATE THE PERFORMANCE OF AVIATION FIRE CONTAINMENT SOLUTIONS FOR LITHIUM- ION BATTERY FIRES G. H. V. P. D. J. Fonseka 198403K Degree of Master of Engineering in Manufacturing Systems Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Moratuwa Sri Lanka December 2022 DEVELOPMENT OF A TESTING PROCEDURE TO EVALUATE THE PERFORMANCE OF AVIATION FIRE CONTAINMENT SOLUTIONS FOR LITHIUM- ION BATTERY FIRES G. H. V. P. D. J. Fonseka 198403K Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master of Engineering in Manufacturing Systems Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Moratuwa Sri Lanka December 2022 i DECLARATION I declare that this is my own work and this thesis does not incorporate without acknowledgement any material previously submitted for a Degree or Diploma in any other University or institute of higher learning and to the best of my knowledge and belief, it does not contain any material previously published or written by another person except where the acknowledgement is made in the text. Also, I hereby grant to University of Moratuwa the non-exclusive right to reproduce and distribute my thesis/dissertation, in whole or in part in print, electronic, or another medium. I retain the right to use this content in whole or part in future works (such as articles or books). Signature: Date: 04/12/2022 The above candidate has carried out research for the master’s thesis under my supervision. Name of the supervisor: Dr. L. U. Subasinghe Signature of the supervisor: Date: 05/12/2022 ii ABSTRACT Fire containment is an important element within the air cargo industry when transporting lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Existing fire suppression systems and fire detection methods used in aircraft are seen as incapable of preventing fires that are originating within the Unit Load Devices (ULD) especially fires originating inside ULD containers. Halon based fire extinguishing systems presently available in aircraft cargo compartments are not enough to put down lithium-ion battery fires. The development of Container Fire Containment Covers (CFCCs) is a latest innovation that has a large impact on the safety of both passenger and freighter aircraft. CFCCs which use a passive fire suppression system are becoming a global norm that can be used to protect each individual ULD container separately and prevent fire from spreading to the adjacent cargo loads. However, there is a lack of evidence on an experimental method to determine the capability of industrial fire containment solutions used in aircraft for containing LIB fires initiated inside ULD containers. Therefore, this study proposes an experimental test method to evaluate the fire containment performance of CFCCs under a LIB fire. The fire containment capability of CFCC designs developed for two different ULD container configurations (AKE and AMJ) are assessed using the developed test method with 2000 and 5000 18650-sized LIB cells respectively with each CFCC design validating the test method. The condition of the ULD containers is also assessed to guide container manufacturers on damages caused by a LIB fire. The results and observations of the fire tests show that ULD containers alone cannot withstand a LIB battery fire and the CFCCs are capable of containing a LIB battery fire for the tested magnitude. Based on the results CFCCs can be considered an acceptable solution to safely transport LIB shipments in commercial aircraft. Keywords: Fire containment, Lithium-ion battery fire, fire tests, Fire containment cover iii DEDICATION I am dedicating this thesis to two beloved people who have meant and continue to mean so much to me. Although they are no longer of this world, their memories continue to regulate my life. First, to my maternal grandfather, Austin Dias whose love for me knew no bounds and, who taught me how to patiently achieve goals in life. And to Rev. Fr. Bonnie Fernandopulle who taught me the value of hard work and the need for a good education to live a good and happy life. May you both find peace and happiness in heaven. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to express my sincere thanks to all the following individuals who contributed to the successful completion of this research. First, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Lihil Subasinghe, who guided me throughout, with his immense knowledge of the subject matter. Secondly, the lecture panel at University of Moratuwa, who guided me throughout my MEng. All the lecturers who have supported me in their areas of expertise. Thirdly, I highly appreciate my coworkers for supporting me with the experiments including setting up the tests, logistics, and transportation. Next, I would like to thank the Fire department at the Board of Investments export processing zone Wathupitiwala for providing the required fire extinguishing support to put down the fire at the end of each experiment. Finally, I should remind the MEng batch 13 members who supported me to come to the end of the program. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration i Abstract ii Dedication iii Acknowledgement iv List of figures vii List of tables viii List of abbreviations ix Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Motivation 3 1.3 Aim and objectives 4 1.3.1 Aim 4 1.3.2 Objectives 4 1.4 Structure of the thesis 5 Chapter 2 Literature review 7 2.1 Lithium-ion battery fires 7 2.2 Aircraft regulations on transporting LIBs 11 2.3 Fire suppression systems and methods used in aircraft 12 2.4 Full-scale fire tests 14 2.5 Summary 15 Chapter 3 Research methodology 17 3.1 Pathways to fulfil objectives 17 3.2 Data collection methods 19 3.3 Review methodology 19 3.4 Methodology findings 20 Chapter 4 Test Details and procedures 24 4.1 Items under test 24 4.1.1 CFCC components 25 4.2 Test equipment 26 4.3 Fire load compositions 29 4.4 LIB full scale test procedure flow chart 32 vi 4.5 LIB full-scale test detailed procedure 33 4.6 Pass/Fail criteria for LIB full-scale fire tests 35 4.7 LIB thermal runaway pilot test 35 4.7.1 Test details 36 4.7.2 Test setup 36 4.8 AMJ ULD container fire test 36 4.8.1 Test details 36 4.8.2 Test setup 37 4.9 AKE ULD container fire test 39 4.9.1 Test details 39 4.9.2 Test setup 39 4.10 Disposal of batteries and test articles 40 Chapter 5 Results and discussion 41 5.1 LIB thermal runaway pilot test 41 5.1.1 Thermocouple readings 41 5.1.2 Post-test observations 41 5.2 AMJ ULD container fire test 42 5.2.1 Observations during test 42 5.2.2 Thermocouple readings 45 5.2.3 Post-test observations 47 5.2.4 Post-test observations on the AMJ ULD container 48 5.2.5 Post-test observations on the AMJ CFCC 48 5.3 AKE ULD container fire test 49 5.3.1 Observations during test 49 5.3.2 Thermocouple readings 50 5.3.3 Post-test observations 51 5.3.4 Post-test observations on the AKE ULD container 52 5.3.5 Post-test observations on the AKE CFCC 53 Chapter 6 Conclusion 54 6.1 Research summary 54 6.2 Contribution to knowledge and practice 55 6.3 Research limitations 56 6.4 Further research directions 57 vii References 58 LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1-1: Revenues of the global lithium-based battery market [4] ......................... 1 Figure 2-1: Surface temperature variation with cell type [14] ..................................... 8 Figure 2-2: Shipping box with interlocking cardboard separators [13] ..................... 10 Figure 2-3: FAA fire test burnt battery load [10] ....................................................... 15 Figure 4-1: AMJ CFCC .............................................................................................. 25 Figure 4-2: AKE CFCC ............................................................................................. 25 Figure 4-3: CFCC components .................................................................................. 25 Figure 4-4: LIB bundle, worm-screw clamps and ignitor .......................................... 26 Figure 4-5: Data measurement processor ................................................................... 28 Figure 4-6: Irreversible temperature indicators [35] .................................................. 29 Figure 4-7: Class A load - boxes and shredded paper ................................................ 30 Figure 4-8: Ethanol filled HDPE bottle ..................................................................... 31 Figure 4-9: LIB thermal runaway pilot test setup & thermocouple position diagram 36 Figure 4-10: Interior thermocouple and battery box positions of AMJ fire test ........ 38 Figure 4-11: Exterior thermocouple positions and quadrant marking ....................... 38 Figure 4-12: AKE fire test setup and thermocouple positions ................................... 39 Figure 5-1: Battery thermal runaway post-test........................................................... 41 Figure 5-2: AMJ CFCC at completion of phase 1 ..................................................... 43 Figure 5-3: Fabric failure in phase 2 .......................................................................... 45 Figure 5-4: AMJ fire test temperature profile recorded by thermocouples ............... 46 Figure 5-5: AMJ container exterior fire damages ...................................................... 48 Figure 5-6: AMJ container interior fire damages ....................................................... 48 Figure 5-7: Post-test interior condition of AMJ CFCC .............................................. 49 Figure 5-8: AKE fire test temperature profile recorded by thermocouples ............... 51 Figure 5-9: Post-test observations of AKE container ................................................ 52 Figure 5-10: AKE container roof damages ................................................................ 52 Figure 5-11: AKE container side damages ................................................................ 52 viii Figure 5-12: AKE container slanted edge damages ................................................... 53 Figure 5-13: Post-test interior condition of the AKE container ................................. 53 Figure 5-14: AKE CFCC post-test ............................................................................. 53 Figure 5-15: AKE CFCC fabric inner side discolouration......................................... 53 LIST OF TABLES Page Table 1-1: Most significant aircraft accidents due to LIBs .......................................... 3 Table 2-1: 18650-sized LIB ignition and explosion time for different SOC ............... 9 Table 3-1: Mapping of objectives with data collection methods ............................... 19 Table 3-2: ULD container specifications ................................................................... 21 Table 4-1: LIB thermal runaway pilot test details ..................................................... 36 Table 4-2: AMJ fire test details .................................................................................. 36 Table 4-3: AKE fire test details ................................................................................. 39 Table 5-1: LIB thermal runaway pilot test thermocouple readings ........................... 41 Table 5-2: AMJ fire test phase 1 observations ........................................................... 42 Table 5-3: AMJ fire test phase 2 observations ........................................................... 43 Table 5-4: AMJ fire test thermocouple readings........................................................ 45 Table 5-5: AMJ fire test peak temperature recorded by irreversible stickers ............ 47 Table 5-6: AKE fire test observations ........................................................................ 49 Table 5-7: AKE fire test thermocouple readings ....................................................... 50 ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Abbreviation Description AS Aerospace Standard BOI Board of Investments CFCC Container Fire Containment Cover EASA European Union Aviation Safety Agency FAA Federal Aviation Administration FCB Fire Containment Bag FCC Fire Containment Cover FRC Fire Resistant Container HDPE High-Density Polyethylene IATA International Air Transport Association ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization PFA Perfluoroalkoxy PRISMA Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta- Analysis SAE Society of Automotive Engineers SOC State of Charge T&C Touch and Close ULD Unit Load Device