295 
 
REFERENCES  
Abdelhalim, A. O., Galal, A., Hussein, M. Z., & Sayed, I. E. (2016). Graphene 
Functionalization by 1,6-Diaminohexane and Silver Nanoparticles for Water 
Disinfection. J. Nanomater., 1485280, 7. 
Aboelfetoh, E. F., Gemeay, A. H., & El-Sharkawy, R. G. (2020). Effective disposal of 
methylene blue using green immobilized silver nanoparticles on graphene oxide and 
reduced graphene oxide sheets through one-pot synthesis. Environ Monit Assess, 
192:355.  
Abraham, G., Agarwal, S. K., Gowrishankar, S., & Vijayan, M. (2019). Chronic Kidney 
Disease of Unknown Etiology: Hotspots in India and Other Asian Countries. J. Sem 
Nephrol, 39(3):272-277.  
Adak, D., Sarkar, M., Mait, M., Tamang, A., Mandal, S., & Chattopadhyay, B. (2015). 
Anti-microbial efficiency of nano silver-silica modified geopolymer mortar for. RSC 
Advances, 1-28. 
Adeno, F., Mulugeta, E., Zewge, F. & Chebude, Y. (2014). Adsorptive removal of 
fluoride from water nano scale aluminum oxidehydroxide (AlOOH). Bull. Chem. Soc. 
Ethiop., 215–227.  
Afroze, S., Sen, T. K. & Ang, H. M. (2016). Adsorption performance of continuous 
fixed bed column for the removal of methylene blue (MB) dye using Eucalyptus 
sheathiana bark biomass. Res Chem Intermed, 42, 2343–2364. 
Akl, M. A., Aly, H. F., Soliman, H. M., Abd-Elrahman, A. M., & Abd-Elhamid, A. I. 
(2013). Preparation and characterization of silica nanoparticles by wet mechanical 
attrition of white and yellow sand. J Nanomed. Nanotechnol, 4(183), 1–14.  
Allender, P. S. et al., (1996). “Dietary calcium and blood pressure: a meta-analysis of 
randomized clinical trials”.  Ann Intern Med., IX(124), 825-31. 
296 
 
Al-Khaldi, F. A., Abu-Sharkh, B., Abulkibash, A. M. & Atieh, M. A. (2015). Cadmium 
removal by activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, and carbon fly 
ash: a comparative study. Desalin Water Treat, 53(5), 1417–1429. 
Alemua, S., Mulugeta, E., Zewgea, F., & Chandravanshia, B. S. (2014). Water 
defluoridation by aluminium oxide–manganese. Environ. Technol., 1893-1903. 
Ambepitiya, I. J. (2015). Cadmium in drinking water sources in Sri Lanka and 
applicability of low-cost adsorbents for cadmium removal. Delft: UNESCO-IHE 
Institute for Water Education. 
Anuradha, C. D., Kanno, S. Hirano, S. (2001). Oxidative damage to mitochondria is a 
preliminary step to caspase-3 activation in fluoride-induced apoptosis in HL- 60 cells. 
Free Radic. Biol. Med., 31, 367–373.  
Ansari, M. A., Khan, H. M., Khan, A. A., Cameotra, S. S., Saquib, Q., & Musarrat, J. 
(2014). Interaction of Al2O3 nanoparticles with Escherichia coli and their cell 
envelope biomolecules. J. Appl. Microbiol, doi:10.1111/jam.12423 
APHA. (1999). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 
American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water 
Environment Federation. 
Aragaw, T. A. & Ayalew, A. A. (2019). Removal of water hardness using zeolite 
synthesized from Ethiopian kaolin by hydrothermal method. Water Pract Tech, 14(1), 
145–159. 
Arigony, A. L. V., De Oliveira, I. M., Machado, M., Bordin, D. L., Bergter, L., Prá, D., 
& Henriques, J. A. P. (2013). The influence of micronutrients in cell culture: A 
reflection on viability and genomic stability. BioMed Research International, 2013. 
https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/597282. 
297 
 
Arshadi, M., Amiri, M. J., Mousavi, S. (2014). Kinetic, equilibrium and thermodynamic 
investigations of Ni (II), Cd (II), Cu (II) and Co (II) adsorption on barley straw ash. 
Water resour. Ind., 6, 1–17. 
Ashbolt, N. J. (2004). Microbial contamination of drinking water and disease outcomes 
in developing regions. Toxicol., I-III(198), 229–238. 
Assefa, B. (2006). Defluoridation of Ethiopian Rift Valley Region water using reverse 
osmosis membranes. JEEA, 6. 
Athuraliya, N. T., Abeysekera, T. D., Amerasinghe, P. H., Kumarasiri, R., Bandara, P., 
Karunaratne, U., Jones, A. L. (2011). Uncertain etiologies of proteinuric-chronic 
kidney disease in rural Sri Lanka. Kidney Int., 80, 1212–1221. 
Ayob, A., Abdullah, A. Z. (2012). Characterisation of Polymer-Stabilized Nano Zero-
valent Iron Particle by Ultrasonic Irradiation-assisted Method. J. Polym. Mater. 29, 
167–179. 
Ayoob, S. & Gupta, A.K., (2006). “Fluoride in Drinking Water: A Review on the Status 
and Stress Effects”. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 
DOI:10.1080/10643380600678112, VI (36), 433-87. 
Azouaoua, N., Sadaoui, Z., Djaafri, A. & Mokaddema, H. (2010). Adsorption of 
cadmium from aqueous solution onto untreated coffee grounds:Equilibrium. kinetics 
and thermodynamics. J Hazard Mater, 184, 126–134. 
Azzam, A., El-Wakeelb, S., Mostafaa, B. & El-Shahatc, M. F. (2016). Removal of Pb, 
Cd, Cu and Ni from aqueous solution using nano scale zero valent iron particles. J 
Environ Chem Eng, IV, 2196–2206.  
Bala, T., Armstrong, G., Laffir, F., & Thornton, R. (2011). Titania–silver and alumina–
silver composite nanoparticles: Novel, versatile synthesis, reaction mechanism and 
potential antimicrobial application. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 395–403. 
298 
 
Balasooriya, S., Munasinghe, H., A. T. Herath, A. T., Diyabalanage, S., Ileperuma, O. 
A., Manthrithilake, H., Chandrajith, R. (2019). Possible links between groundwater 
geochemistry and chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu): an 
investigation from the Ginnoruwa region in Sri Lanka. Expo Health, 1–12.  
Baldisserotto, B., Chowdhury, M. J., & Wood, C. M. (2005). Effects of dietary calcium 
and cadmium on cadmium accumulation, calcium and cadmium uptake from the 
water, and their interactions in juvenile rainbow trout. Aquat Toxicol, 99-117 
Bandarage, A. (2013). Political Economy of Epidemic Kidney Disease in Sri Lanka. 
SAGE J, 3-4. 
Bandara, N. J. G. J. (2003). Water and wastewater issue in Sri Lanka. Water Sci. 
Technol., XII(47), 3025–312. 
Bandara, R. M. C. J., Bandara, B. M. R., Abeykoon, D. M. B., Wickramasinghe, A., 
Wijesundara, D. S. Karunaratne, V. & Karunaratne, N. (2011). Proceedings of the 
Peradeniya University Research Sessions, Sri Lanka. 16(24), 156.  
Barbier, O., Arreola-Mendoza, L., Razo, D. L. M. (2010). Molecular mechanisms of 
fluoride toxicity. Chemico-Biolog. Interac. 188, 319–333. 
Barroso-Bogeat, A., Alexandre-Franco, M., Fernández-González, C. & Gómez-Serrano, 
V. (2016). Activated carbon surface chemistry: Changes upon impregnation with 
Al(III), Fe(III) and Zn(II)-metal oxide catalyst precursors from NO3− aqueous 
solutions. Arab. J. Chem., In press. 
Bartram, J., & Pedley, S. (1996). Microbiological Analysis. In Water Quality 
Monitoring - A Practical Guide to the Design and Implementation of Freshwater 
Quality Studies and Monitoring Programmes (pp. 1–27). Geneva: United Nations 
Environment Programme and the World Health Organization. 
299 
 
Batuman, V. (2006). Fifty years of Balkan endemic nephropathy: daunting questions, 
elusive answers. Kidney International, New York, 69, 644–646. 
Belkada, F. D., Kitous, O., Drouiche, N., Aoudj, S., Bouchelaghem, O., Abdi, N., 
Mameri, N. (2018). Electrodialysis for fluoride and nitrate removal from 
synthesized photovoltaic industry wastewater. Sep Purif. Technol., 108–115. 
Benjwal, P., Kumar, M., Chamolia, P., & Kar, K. K. (2015). Enhanced photocatalytic 
degradation of methylene blue and adsorption of arsenic (III) by reduced graphene 
oxide (rGO)–metal oxide (TiO2/Fe3O4) based nanocomposites. RSC Adv, 5, 
73249.  
Bernstein, D. S., Sadowsky, N., Hegsted, D. M., Guri, C. D., Stare, E. J., (1966). 
Prevalence of osteoporosis in high- and low-fluoride areas in North Dakota. JAMA, 
198:499–504. 
Bhatnagar, A., Kumar, E., Sillanpaa, M. (2011). Fluoride removal from water by 
adsorption - a review. Chem Eng J. 171:811–840. 
BNDWQS. (2009). Bangladesh National Drinking Water Quality Survey of 2009. 
Bangladesh: Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Planning Division, Ministry of 
Planning.  
Bo¨hmer, H., Mu¨ller, H. & Resch, K.L., (2000). “Calcium supplementation with 
calcium rich mineral waters: a systematic review and meta-analysis of its 
bioavailability”. Osteoporosis Int, (11), pp.938–43.  
Baldisserotto, B., Chowdhury, M. J., & Wood, C. M. (2005). Effects of dietary calcium 
and cadmium on cadmium accumulation, calcium and cadmium uptake from the 
water, and their interactions in juvenile rainbow trout. Aquat Toxicol, 99-117 
300 
 
Boparai, H. K., Joseph, M., & O’Carroll, D. M. (2013). Cadmium (Cd2+) removal by 
nano zerovalent iron: surface analysis, effects of solution chemistry and surface 
complexation modelling. Environ Sci Pollut Res., 20 (9), 6210–6221. 
Borzou, A., Kalbasi, M., Hoodaji, M., Abdouss, M., & Mohammadi, A. (2014). 
Isotherm investigation of the adsorption of cadmium onto modified poly(ethylene 
terephthalate) fiber. Euro J of Exp Bio, 4(2), 136–142. 
Bovend’Eerdt, T. J., Botell, R. E., & Wade, D. T. (2009). Writing SMART rehabilitation 
goals and achieving goal attainment scaling: a practical guide. Clin. Rehabil., 352–
361. 
Braghetta, A., DiGiano, F. A., Ball, W. P. (1997). Nanofiltration of natural organic 
matter: pH and ionic strength effects. J. Environ. Eng. 123, 628–641. 
Braeken, L., Ramaekers, R., Zhang, Y., Maes, G., Van Der Bruggen, B., Vandecasteele, 
C. (2005). Influence of hydrophobicity on retention in nanofiltration of aqueous 
solutions containing organic compounds. J. of Membrane Sci. 252 (1–2), 195–203. 
Borke, J. L., Whiteford, G. M. (1999). Chronic fluoride ingestion decreases 45Ca uptake 
by rat kidney membranes. J Nutr. 129,1209–1231. 
Brunauer, S., Emmett, P.H., Teller, E. (1938). Adsorption of gases in multi molecular 
layers. J Am Chem Soc. 60, 309–319. 
Brooks, A. S., Rozenwald, M. N., Geohring, L., Lion, L. W., & Steenhuis, T. S. (2000). 
Phosphorus removal by wollastonite: A constructed wetland substrate. Ecol Eng, 
15, 121–132. 
Bykkam, S., Rao, K. V., Chakra, C. H., Thunugunta, T. (2013), Synthesis and 
characterization of graphene oxide and its antimicrobial activity against klebseilla 
and Staphylococus. Int J Adv Biotechnol Res, 4(1), 142–146.  
Cadotte, E., Petersen, R. J., Larson, R. E., Erickson, E. E. (1980). New Thin-Film 
Composite Seawater Reverse-Osmosis Membrane. Desalination, 32, 25–31. 
301 
 
Carolin, C. F., Kumar, P. S., Saravanan, A., Oshiba, G. J., Naushad, M. (2017). Efficient 
Techniques for the Removal of Toxic Heavy Metals from Aquatic Environment: A 
Review. J. Environ. Chem. Eng., 5(3), 2782–2799.  
Cama, J., Ayora, C., Querol, X., & Gonor, J. (2005). Dissolution kinetics of synthetic 
zeolite NaP1and its implication to zeolite treatment of contaminated water. 
Environ Sci Technol, 39:4871–4877. 
Camacho, L. M., Torres, A., Saha, D., Deng, S. (2010). Adsorption equilibrium and 
kinetics of fluoride on sol-gel-derived activated alumina adsorbents. J. Colloid 
Interface Sci., 349, 307–313.  
Chandra, A.K., Sengupta, P., Goswami, H. & Sarkar, M., (2013). Effects of dietary 
magnesium on testicular histology, steroidogenesis, spermatogenesis and oxidative 
stress markers in adult rats. Indian J Exp Biol. , I(51), 37-47. 
Chandrajith, R., Nanayakkara, S., Itai, K., Aturaliya, T. N., Dissanayake, C. B., 
Abeysekera, T., Harada, K., Watanabe, T., Koizumi, A. (2011a). Chronic kidney 
diseases of uncertain etiology (CKDue) in Sri Lanka: geographic distribution and 
environmental implications. Environ Geochem Health, 33(3), 267–278. 
Chandrajith, R., Dissanayake, C. B., Ariyarathna, T., Herath, H. M., & Padmasiri, J. P. 
(2011b). Dose-dependent Na and Ca in fluoride-rich drinking water –Another 
major cause of chronic renal failure in tropical arid regions. Sci. Total Environ., 
409, 671–675. 
Chandrajith, R., Padmasiri, J. P., Dissanayake, C. B. & Prematilaka, K. M. (2012). 
Spatial distribution of fluoride in groundwater of Sri Lanka, J. Natn. Sci. 
Foundation Sri Lanka, 40(4), 303–309. 
Chang, Y., Chang, P., Lee, Y., Lee, T., Lai, Y., & Chen, S. (2014). Morphological and 
structural evolution of mesoporous calcium aluminate nanocomposites by 
microwave-assisted synthesis. Micropor Mesopor Mat, 134–142.  
302 
 
Chavkin, S. (2012). As kidney disease kills thousands across continents, scientist 
scramble for answers, Mystery in the field. USA: The Center for Public Intregrity. 
Childress, A. E., & Elimelech, M., (1996). Effect of solution chemistry on the surface 
charge of polymeric reverse osmosis and nanofiltration membranes. J. Membr. Sci. 
119, 253–268. 
Chekli, L., Bayatsarmadi, B., Sekine, B. R., Sarkar, B., Shen, A. M., Scheckel, K. G., 
Skinner, W., Naidu, R., Shon, H. K., Lombi, E., Donner, E. (2016). Analytical 
characterisation of nanoscale zero-valent iron: A methodological review. Analytica 
Chimica Acta. 903, 13–35. 
Chemistry Learning, Free Online Education Resource. (2009, March 5). Retrieved from 
www.chemistrylearning.com: http://www.chemistrylearning.com/adsorption. 
Chen, S., Yue, Q., Gao, B., Li, Q. X., & Fu, K. (2012). Adsorption of hexavalent 
chromium from aqueous solution by modified corn stalk: A fixed-bed column 
study. Bioresour. Technol, 113, 114–120. 
Chen, H., Zhang, H., & Yan, Y. (2013). Adsorption dynamics of toluene in structured 
fixed bed with ZSM-5 membrane/PSSF composites. Chem. Eng. J. , 336-344. 
Chen, Z., Liu, T., Tang, J., Zheng, Z., Wang, H., Shao, Q., & Feng, T. (2018). 
Characteristics and mechanisms of cadmium adsorption from aqueous solution 
using lotus seedpod-derived biochar at two pyrolytic temperatures. Environ Sci 
Pollut R, 25(12), 11854–11866. 
Choi, O., Clevenger, T. E., Deng, B., Surampalli, R. Y., Ross, L. J., & Hu, Z. (2009). 
Role of sulfide and ligand strength in controlling nanosilver toxicity. Water Res., 
1879–1886. 
Comstock, G.W. (1971). “Fatal Arteriosclerotic heart disease, water hardness at water 
socioeconomic characteristics”. Ame. J. of Epidemiology, I(94), pp.1-10. 
303 
 
Conidi, C., Castro-Muñoz, R., & Cassano, A. (2020). Membrane-Based Operations in 
the Fruit Juice Processing Industry: A Review. Beverages, 6(1), 18–29. 
Collons, J. J. (1967). The LUB/equilibrium section concept for fixed-bed adsorption. 
Chem Eng Progs, 31-35. 
Coronell, O., Marinas, B. J., & Cahill, D. G. (2011). Depth heterogeneity of fully 
aromatic polyamide active layers in reverse osmosis and nanofiltration membranes. 
Environ Sci Technol, 45, 4513–4520.  
Correa-Rotter, R., Wesseling, C., & Johnson, R. J. (2014). CKD of Unknown Origin in 
Central America: The Case for a Mesoamerican Nephropathy. Am J Kidney Dis., 
63(3): 506–520 
Cooray, T., Wei, Y., Zhong, H., Zheng, L., Weragoda, S. K., & Weerasooriya, R. 
(2019). Assessment of Groundwater Quality in CKDu Affected Areas of Sri 
Lanka: Implication for Drinking Water Treatment. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public 
Health, 16, 1698. 
Cruza, R. & Flores, J. V. (2017). Reduction of Coliforms presents in domestic residual 
waters by Air-Ozone Micro-Nanobubbles In Carhuaz city, Peru. J. Nanotechnol., 
1, 9–17. 
Cundy, A. B., Hopkinson, L., Whitby, R. L. (2008). Use of iron-based technologies in 
contaminated land and groundwater remediation: a review. Sci. Total Environ., 
400: 42–51.  
CSE, (2012). Environmental contamination and its association with Chronic Kidney 
Disease of Unknown Etiology in North Central Region of Sri Lanka. Centre for 
Science and environment, New Delhi, India.  
304 
 
Crawford, R. J., Harding, I. H., Mainwaring, D. E. (1993). Adsorption and co-
precipitation of single heavy metals ions onto the hydrated oxides of iron and 
chromium. Langmuir. 9, 3050–3056. 
Da Conceição, V. M., Ugri, M. C. B. A., Silveira, C., et al. (2015). Removal of Excess 
Fluoride from Groundwater Using Natural Coagulant Moringa oleifera Lam and 
Microfiltration. Can J Chem Eng. 93:37–45. 
Dayananda, D., Sarva, V. R., Prasad, S. V., Arunachalam, J. G. (2014). Preparation of 
CaO loaded mesoporous Al2O3: Efficient adsorbent for fluoride removal from 
water. Chem Eng J, 248, 430–439. 
Das, M. R., Sarma, R. K., Saikia, R., Vinayak S., Kale, V. S., Manjusha V., Shelke, M. 
V. & Sengupta, P. (2011). Synthesis of silver nanoparticles in an aqueous 
suspension of graphene oxide sheets and its antimicrobial activity. Colloid Surf B: 
Biointerfaces, 83, 16–22. 
Dayananda, D., Sarva, V. R., Prasad, S. V., & Arunachalam, J. G. (2014). Preparation of 
CaO loaded mesoporous Al2O3: Efficient adsorbent for fluoride removal from 
water. Chem Eng J, 248, 430–439. 
Devaraj, P., Kumari, P., Aarti, C. & Renganathan, A. (2013). Synthesis and 
Characterization of Silver Nanoparticles Using Cannonball Leaves and Their 
Cytotoxic Activity against MCF-7 Cell Line. J. Nanotechnol., 2013, 598328. 
Devi, R., Umlong, L. M., Raul, P. K., Das, B., Banerjee, S., & Singh, L. (2014). 
Defluoridation of water using nano-magnesium oxide. J Exp Nanosci, 9(5), 512–
524. 
Dewagea, N. B., Liyanagea, A. S., Pittman, C. U. & Mohanb, D. (2018). Fast nitrate and 
fluoride adsorption and magnetic separation from water on α-Fe2O3 and Fe3O4 
dispersed on Douglas fir biochar. Bioresour. Technol., 263, 258–265. 
305 
 
Dharmagunawardana, H. A. (2009). Fluoride problem in the groundwater of Sri Lanka. 
Economic Review. 35(3–4), 46–48. 
Dharmawardana, M. W., Amarasiri, S. L., Dharmawardene, N. & Panabokke, C. R. 
(2014). Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown etiology and Ground water ionicity; 
study base on Sri Lanka. Environ Geochem Health, 37(2), 221–31. 
Dharma-wardana, M. W. C. (2018). Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown aetiology 
(CKDu) and multiple-ion interactions in drinking water. Environ Geochem Health, 
40(2), 705.  
Dissanayake, C. B. (2005). Water quality in the dry zone of Sri Lanka-some interesting 
health aspects. J. Nat. Sci. Found. Sri Lanka, 161-165.  
Diawara, C. K., Diop, S. N., Diallo, M. A., & M. A. Farcy, M. A. (2011). Determination 
Performance of nanofiltration (NF) and low pressure reverse osmosis (LPRM) 
membranes in the removal of fluorine and salinity from brackish drinking water, J 
Water Resour Prot, 3, 912-917. 
Dissanayake, C. B., & Chandrajith, R. (2017). Groundwater fluoride as a geochemical 
marker in the etiology of chronic kidney disease of unknown origin in Sri Lanka. 
Ceylon J. Sci. 46. 
Dissanayake, C. B., & Chandrajith, R. (2019). Fluoride and hardness in groundwater of 
tropical regions - review of recent evidence indicating tissue calcification and 
calcium phosphate nanoparticle formation in kidney tubules. Ceylon J. Sci., 48(3), 
197–207. 
Dubinin, M. M. (1960). The potential theory of adsorption of gases and vapours for 
adsorbents with energetically non uniform surfaces. Chem Rev. 60, 235–241.  
Do, D. D. (1998). Adsorption Analysis: Equilibrium and Kinetics. London: Imperial 
College Press. 
306 
 
Dong, H., Zhaoa, F., Zenga, G., Tanga, L., Fana, C., Zhanga, L, Zenga, Y., Hea, Q., 
Xiea, Y., & Wu, Y. (2016). Aging study on carboxymethyl cellulose-coated zero-
valent iron nanoparticles in water: Chemical transformation and structural 
evolution. J Hazard Mater, 312, 234–242. 
Elliott H. A. & Huang C. P. 1979 The effect of complex formation on the adsorption 
characteristics of heavy metals. Environ. Int. 2(3), 145–155. 
Elhefnawy, O. & Elabd, A. A. (2017). Natural silica sand modified by calcium oxide as 
a new adsorbent for uranyl ions removal from aqueous solutions. Radiochim. acta, 
105(10), 821-830. 
Elkhatib, E., Mahdy, A., Sherif, F. & Elshemy, W. (2016). Competitive Adsorption of 
Cadmium (II) from Aqueous Solutions onto Nanoparticles of Water Treatment 
Residual. J. Nanomat., 2016, 10. 
Elledge, M. F., Redmon, J. H., Levine, K. E., Wickremasinghe, R. J., Wanigasariya, K. 
P., & Peiris-John, R. J. (2014). ChronicKidney Disease of Unknown Etiology in 
Sri Lanka: Quest for Understanding and Global Implications, Triangle Park, NC, 
USA,: RTI Brief Research; RTI Press. 
Ene-Iordache, B., Perico, N., Bikbov, B., Carminati, S., Remuzzi, A., Perna, A., Islam, 
N., Bravo, R.F., Aleckovic-Halilovic, M., Zou, H., Zhang, L., Gouda, Z., 
Tchokhonelidze, I., Abraham, G., Mahdavi-Mazdeh, M., Gallieni, M., Codreanu, 
I., Togtokh, A., Sharma, S.K., Koirala, P., Uprety, S., Ulasi, I. & Remuzzi, G. 
(2016). Chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular risk in six regions of the world 
(ISN-KDDC): A cross-sectional study. Lancet Glob Health, 4(5), e307–e319. 
Ergun, E., Tor, A., Cengeloglu, Y., et al. (2008). Electrodialytic removal of fluoride 
from water: Effects of process parameters and accompanying anions. Sep Purif 
Technol. 64:147–153. 
307 
 
Essington, M. E. (2005). Soil and water chemistry an integrative approach. Washington: 
Taylor & Francis. 
EPA. (2002). Method 1604: Total Coliforms and Escherichia coli in Water by 
Membrane Filtration Using a Simultaneous Detection Technique (MI Medium). 
Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20460: U.S. Environmental 
Protection Agency.  
Fabrizi, L., (2014). “Demiwater and health. Health risks from drinking of demineralised 
water, Water treatment solution”, Lenntech. 
Fang, Z., Chen, J., Qiu, X., Qiu, X., Cheng, W., & Zhu, L. (2011). Effective removal of 
antibiotic metronidazole from water by nanoscale zero-valent iron particles, 
Desalination, 268: 60–67.  
Fernando, M. S., Wimalasiri, A. K., Ratnayake, S. P., Jayasinghe, J. M., William, G. R., 
Dissanayake, D. P., De Silva, R. M. (2019). Improved nanocomposite of 
montmorillonite and hydroxyapatite for defluoridation of water. RSC Adv, 35588–
35598. 
Franus, W., Wdowin, M. & Franus, M. (2014). Synthesis and characterization of zeolites 
prepared from industrial fly ash. J Environ Monit Assess, IX(186), 5721–5729. 
Freundlich, H. M. F. (1906). Over the adsorption in solution. J Phys Chem. 57, 385–471. 
Fu, R., Yang, Y., Xu, Z., Zhang, X., Guo, X., & Bi, B. (2015). The removal of 
Chromium (VI) and lead (II) from groundwater using sepiolite-supported 
nanoscale zero-valent iron (S-NZVI). Chemosphere, 138, 726–734. 
Galvan-Ruiz, M., Hernandez, J., Banos, L., Noriega-Montes, J., & Rodríguez-García, M. 
E. (2009). Characterisation of calcium carbonate, calcium oxide, calcium 
hydroxide as starting point to the improvement of lime for their use in 
construction. J Mater Civ Eng, 21, 625–708.  
308 
 
Gaurav, Y., Devendra, P. & Kumar, P. (2014). Assessment of Ground Water Quality and 
its Impact on Health of people around Rewa City, MP, India. Int. Res. J. 
Environment Sci, III (7), 70–72. 
Gawande, S. M., Belwalkar, N. S., & Mane, A. A. (2017). Adsorption and its Isotherm – 
Theory. IJSER, 312–316.  
Gedam, V. V., Patil, J. L., Kagne, S., Sirsam, R. S., & Labhasetwar, P. (2012). 
Performance evaluation of polyamide reverse osmosis membrane for removal of 
contaminants in ground water collected from Chandrapur district, J. Membrane 
Sci. Techno., 2 (3), 1 – 5. 
Geethamani, C. K., Ramesh, S. T., Gandhimathi, R., & Nidheesh, P. V. (2013). Fluoride 
sorption by treated fly ash: kinetic and isotherm studies. J Mater Cycles Waste 
Manag, 381–392. 
Gifford, F. J., Gifford, R. M., Eddleston, M., & Dhaun, N. (2017). Endemic 
Nephropathy Around the World. Kidney Int Rep., 282–292. 
Gong, K., Hu, Q., Xiao, Y., Cheng, X., Liu, H., Wang, N., Qiu, B., & Guo, Z. (2018). 
Triple Layered Core-Shell ZVI@Carbon@Polyaniline Composites Enhanced 
Electron Utilization in Cr (VI) Reduction, J. Mater. Chem. A, 6, 11119–11128.  
González-Quiroz, M., Pearce, N., Caplin, B., & Nitsch, D. (2018). What do 
epidemiological studies tell us about chronic kidney disease of undetermined cause 
in Meso-America? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin. Kidney J., 496–
506. 
Gorry, C. (2014). CKDu Ravages the Salvadoran Countryside, MEDICC Review. 16(2), 
5–8. 
309 
 
Goud, R. V., Kumar, B. L., Abhilash, N., Prasad, P. R., & Saradhi, B. V. (2015). 
Comparision studies on Adsorbants for removal of Hardness from Water by using 
newly Prepared Zeolite. IJAPBS, 4(2), 342–354. 
Gropper, S. & Smith, J., (2012). Water and electrolytes. In Advanced Nutrition and 
Human Metabolism. 6th ed. USA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. 608. 
Gutiérrez-Amavizca, B. E., Orozco-Castellanos, R., Ortíz-Orozco, R., Padilla-Gutiérrez, 
J., Valle, Y., Gutiérrez-Gutiérrez, N., Figuera, L. E. (2013). Contribution of 
GSTM1, GSTT1, and MTHFR polymorphisms to end-stage renal disease of 
unknown etiology in Mexicans. Indian J Nephrol., 23(6), 438–443. 
Habuda-Stanić, M., Ravančić, M. E. & Flanagan, A. (2014). A Review on adsorption of 
fluoride from aqueous solution. Materials, 7, 6317–6366. 
Hady, H. A. E. (2012). Syntheses and antimicrobial activity of some new thiohydantoin 
and thiazole derivatives. Der Pharma Chemica, 4(6), 2202–2207. 
Hall, K. R., Eagleton, L. C., Aerivos, A., & Vemeclen, T. (1966). Pore- and solid-
diffusion kinetics in fixed-bed adsorption under constant constant pattern. Ind Eng 
Chem Fund, 212–223.  
Han, R., Wang, Y., Zhao, X., Wang, Y., Xie, F., & Cheng, J. T. (2009). Adsorption of 
methylene blue by phoenix tree leaf powder in a fixed-bed column: experiments 
and prediction of breakthrough curves. Desalination, 284–297. 
Heiri, C., Wolf, A., Rohrer, L., & Bugmann, H. (2009). Forty years of natural dynamics 
in Swiss beech forests: Structure, composition, and the influence of former 
management. Ecological Applications, 19, 1920–1934. 
Herath, H. M., Kawakami, T., & Tafu, M. (2018). The Extremely High Adsorption 
Capacity of Fluoride by Chicken Bone Char (CBC) in Defluoridation of Drinking 
310 
 
Water in Relation to Its Finer Particle Size for Better Human Health. Healthcare, 
6, 123. 
Ho, Y.S., & McKay, G. (1999). Pseudo-second order model for sorption processes. 
Process Biochem. 34, 451–465. 
Hoyos-Sánchez, M. C., Córdoba-Pacheco, A. C., Rodríguez-Herrera, F. R. & Uribe-
Kaffure, R. (2017). Removal of Cd (II) from Aqueous Media by Adsorption onto 
Chemically and Thermally Treated Rice Husk. J. Chem., 5763832. 
Hua, M., Zhang, S., Pan, B., Zhang, W., Lv, L., & Zhang, Q. (2012). Heavy metal 
removal from waste/wastewater by nano sized metal oxides: A review. J. Hazard. 
Mater., 211, 317–331. 
Ileperuma, O. A., Dharmagunawardhane, H. A. & Herath, K. P. R. P. (2009). 
Dissolution of aluminium from sub-standard utensils under high fluoride stress: a 
possible risk factor for chronic renal failure in the North-Central Province. J. Natn. 
Sci. Foundation Sri Lanka, 219–222. 
Imtiaz, A., Farrukh, M., Khaleeq-ur-rahman, M. & Adnan, R. (2013). Micelle-Assisted 
synthesis of Al2O3⋅CaO nanocatalyst: Optical properties and their applications in 
photodegradation of 2,4,6-Trinitrophenol. Sci. World J., 2013, 641420. 
Inglezakis, V., & Inglezakis, V. (2006). Adsorption, ion exchange and catalysis: Design 
of operations and environmental applications. Elsevier, 3, 243–307. 
Islam, M. & Patel, R. (2007). Evaluation of removal efficiency of fluoride from aqueous 
solution using quick lime. J. Hazard. Mater., I-II(143), 303–310.  
Iwami, O. et al., (1994). Motor neuron disease on the Kii Peninsula of Japan: excess 
manganese intake from food coupled with low magnesium in drinking water as a 
risk factor. Sci. Total Environ., (149), 121-35. 
311 
 
Jabeen, H., Kemp, K. C., & Chandra, V. (2013). Synthesis of nano zerovalent iron 
nanoparticles– Graphene composite for the treatment of lead-contaminated water, J 
Environ Manage, 130, 429e435. 
Jacqmin, H., Letenneur, L., Barberger-Gateau, P. & Dartigues, J. (1994). Components of 
drinking water and risk of cognitive impairment in the elderly. Am. J. Epidemiol, 
48–57. 
Jadhav, S. V., Gadipelly, C. R., Marathe, K. V., et al. (2014). Treatment of fluoride 
concentrates from membrane unit using salt solutions. J Water Process Eng. 2:31–
36. 
Jaishankar, M., Tseten, T., Anbalagan, N., Mathew, B. B., & Beeregowda, K. N. (2014). 
Toxicity, mechanism and health effects of some heavy metals. Interdiscip Toxicol, 
II(7), 60–72. 
Jain, S. J., & Snoeyink, V. L. (1973). Adsorption from bi-solute systems on active 
carbon. J Water Pollut Control Fed., 45, 2463–2479.  
Jalalia S. A. & Allafchian, A. R. (2015). Assessment of antibacterial properties of novel 
silver nanocomposite. J Taiwan Ins Chem E., 1–8. 
Janković, S., Bukvić, D., Marinković, J., Janković, J., Marić, I., & Djukanović, L. 
(2013). Trends in Incidence and Prevalence of Balkan Endemic Nephropathy in the 
Three Most Affected Villages in Serbia Over a 36-Year Period. Ren. Fail., 35(4), 
509–513. 
Jarup, L. (2003). Hazards of heavy metal contamination. Br. Med. Bull., 68, 167–182. 
Jacqmin, H., Letenneur, L., Barberger-Gateau, P. & Dartigues, J., 1994. Components of 
drinking water and risk of cognitive impairment in the elderly. Am. J. Epidemiol, 
48-57. 
Jayasekara, K. B., Dissanayake, D. M., Sivakanesan, R., Ranasinghe, A., Karunarathna, 
R. H., Waligamage, G., & Kumara, G. M. (2015). Epidemiology of Chronic 
312 
 
Kidney Disease, With Special Emphasis on Chronic Kidney Disease of Uncertain 
Etiology, in the North Central Region of Sri Lanka. Int. J. Epidemiol., 275-280. 
Jayasinghe, S. (2014). Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown Etiology Should Be 
Renamed Chronic Agrochemical Nephropathy. MEDICC Rev., 16(2), 72–74. 
Jayasumana, C., Gajanayaka, R. & Siribaddana, S. (2014). Importance of arsenic and 
pesticides in epidemic chronic kidney disease in Sri Lanka. BMC Nephrol, 15, 124. 
Jayasumana, C., Gunatilake, S. & Senanayake, P. (2015). Glyphosate, hard water, and 
nephrotoxic metals: Are they the culprits behind the epidemic of Chronic Kidney 
Disease of Unknown Etiology in Sri Lanka? J. Environ. Res. Public Health, II 
(11), 2125–2147. 
Jayathilake, N., Mendis, S. & Maheepala, P. M. F. C. N. R. P. T. (2013). Chronic kidney 
disease of uncertain aetiology: prevalence and causative factors in a developing 
country. BMC Nephrol, 14, 180. 
Jayarathna, L., Bandara, A., Ng, W.J., Weerasooriya, R. (2015). Fluoride adsorption on 
γ − Fe2O3 nanoparticles. J Environ Health Sci Eng. 13, 54.  
Jayaweera, M., Sudasinghe, M., Gunawardana, B., Peiris, A., & Manathunge, J. (2019). 
Use of CaO Loaded Mesoporous Alumina for Defluoridation of Potable 
Groundwater Containing Elevated Calcium Levels. Environ, 66. 
Jinadasa, K. B., Weerasooriya, S. W., & Dissanayake, C. B. (1988). A rapid method for 
defluoridation of fluoride rich drinking water at village level. Environ. Sci., 305–
312. 
Jo, M., Soto, L., Arocho, M., St John, J., & Hwang, S. (2015). Optimum mix design of 
fly ash geopolymer paste and its use in pervious concrete for removal of fecal 
coliforms and phosphorus in water. Constr Build Mater, 93, 1097–1104. 
313 
 
Judd, E. & Calhoun, D. A. (2015). Management of hypertension in CKD: Beyond the 
guidelines, Adv Chronic Kidney Dis. 22(2), 116–22.  
Kakavandi, B., Jafari, A. J., Kalantary, R. R., Nasseri, S., Ameri, A., Esrafily, A. (2013). 
Synthesis and properties of Fe3O4-activated carbon magnetic nanoparticles for 
removal of aniline from aqueous solution: equilibrium, kinetic and thermodynamic 
studies. Iranian J Environ Health Sci Eng., 10, 19. 
Kanehiraa, S., Kanamori, S., Nagashima, K., Saeki, T., Visbal, H., Fukui, T., & Hirao, 
K. (2013). Controllable hydrogen release via aluminum powder corrosion in 
calcium hydroxide solutions. JAsCerS, 296–303. 
Kannan, D. & Mani, N. (2014). Removal of hardness (Ca2+, Mg2+) and alkalinity from 
ground water by low cost adsorbent using phyllanthus emblica wood. IJCPA, 1(4), 
208–212. 
Kansara, N., Bhati, L., Narang, M., & Vaishnavi, R. (2016). Wastewater treatment by 
ion exchange method: a review of past and recent researches. Environ. Sci., 143–
150.  
Kapur, M., & Mondal, M. K. (2015). Design and model parameters estimation for fixed–
bed column adsorption of Cu(II) and Ni(II) ions using magnetized saw dust. 
Desalin water treat., 1–12. 
Karthikeyan, M. & Elango, K. (2008). Removal of fluoride from aqueous solution using 
graphite: A kinetic and thermodynamic study. Indian J. Chem. Technol., 15, 525–
532.  
Katalo, R., Okuda, T., Nghiem, L. D., & Fujioka, T. (2018). Moringa oleifera 
coagulation as pretreatment prior to microfiltration for membrane fouling 
mitigation. Environ. Sci. Water Res. Technol., 1604–1611. 
Katarzyna, I., 2009. Selection of Sorbent for Removing Pesticides during Water 
Treatment. J. Hazard. Mater, Issue 169, 953. 
314 
 
Kavand, M., Fakoor, E., Mahzoon, S., & Soleimani, M. (2017). An improved Film-Pore-
Surface Diffusion Model in the fixed-bed column adsorption for heavy metal ions: 
Single and multi-component systems. Process Saf Environ Prot. 330–342. 
Kesting, R. E. (1990). The 4 Tiers of Structure in integrally skinned phase inversion 
membranes and their relevance to various separation regimes. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 
41, 2739–2752. 
Kiran, B. & Kaushik, A. (2008). Cyanobacterial biosorption of Cr(VI): application of 
two parameter and Bohart Adams models for batch and column studies. Chem Eng 
J., 144(3), 391–399. 
Ku, Y., & Chiou, H. M., (2002) The adsorption of fluoride ion from aqueous solution by 
activated alumina. Water Air Soil Pollut. 133, 349–361. 
Kumanan, M., Sathya, G., Nandakumar, V. & Berchmans, I. J. (2016). Extraction of 
potash from k-feldspar mineral by acid and molten salt leaching processes. Int J 
Min Met Mater., 1–10. 
Kumar, E., Bhatnagar, A., Kumar, U. & Sillanpa, M. (2011). Defluoridation from 
aqueous solutions by nano-alumina: characterization and sorption studies. J. 
Hazard. Mater, 186, 1042–1049. 
Kumar, R. P., Dongre, A., Muruganandham, R., Deshmukh, P., & Rajagovindan, D. 
(2019). Prevalence of Chronic Kidney Disease and Its Determinants in Rural 
Pondicherry, India-A Community Based Cross-Sectional Study. Open Urol 
Nephrol J, 14–22. 
Koc J., Sidoruk M., Rochwerger A. (2009). Calcium ion migration in agricultural and 
afforested lake catchments. Ecol. Chem. Eng A 16, 3: 201-212. 
 Kordialik-Bogacka, E., (2001). Surface properties of yeast cells during heavy metal 
biosorption, Cent Eur J Chem, 9(2):348–351. 
315 
 
Kohri, K., Kodama, M., Ishikawa, Y., Katayama, Y., Takada, M., Katoh, Y., Kurita, T. 
(1989). Magnesium-to-calcium ratio in tap water, and its relationship to geological 
features and the incidence of calcium-containing urinary stones. J Urol, 142(5), 
1272–1275. 
Konale, R. A., Mahale, N. K., & Ingle, S. T. (2020). Nano-zeolite-graphene oxide 
composite for calcium hardness removal: isotherm and kinetic study. Water Pract. 
Technol., 15 (4): 1011–1031.  
Kozisek, F., (2005). “Health Risks from Drinking demineralized water”. National 
Institute of Public Health, Czech Republic, 1-16. 
Landry, B. K., Nadworny, P. L., Maham, Y., Burrell, J. C., & Burrell, R. E. (2009). The 
kinetics of thermal instability in nanocrystalline silver and the effect of heat 
treatment on the antibacterial activity of nanocrystalline silver dressings. 
Biomaterials, 6929–6939. 
Lagergren, S. (1898). About the theory of so-called adsorption of soluble substances. 
Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens Handlingar. 24, 1–39. 
Langmuir, I. (1918). The adsorption of gases on plane surfaces of glass, mica and 
platinum. J Am Chem Soc. 40, 1361–1403. 
Laux, T. S., Bert, P. J., Ruiz, B. G., González, M., Unruh, M., Aragon, A., & Lacourt, T. 
C. (2012). Nicaragua revisited: evidence of lower prevalence of chronic kidney 
disease in a high-altitude, coffee-growing village. J Nephrol., 25(4), 533–540.  
Lavrenko, V. A., Podchernyaeva, I. A., Shchur, D. V., Zolotarenko, A. D., & 
Zolotarenko, A. D. (2017). Features of physical and chemical adsorption during 
interaction of polycrystalline and nanocrystalline materials with gases. Powder 
Metall Met Ceram., 23–33. 
Le, N. L. & Nunes, S. P. (2016). Materials and membrane technologies for water and 
energy sustainability. Sustainable Mater. Technol., 7, 1–28. 
Lehmann, M. & Zouboulis, A. I. M. K. A. (2001). Modeling the sorption of metals from 
aqueous solutions on goethite fixed bed. Environ pollut, 113(2), 121–128. 
316 
 
Lesbani, A., Sitompul, S., Mohadi, R. & Hidayati, N. (2016). Characterization and 
utilisation of Calcium Oxide (CaO) thermally decomposed from fish bones as a 
catalyst in the production of biodiesel from waste cooking oil. Makara J. Technol, 
20, 121–126. 
Levine, K. E., Redmon, J. H., Elledge, M. F., Wanigasuriya, K. P., K., S., Munoz, B., 
Wickremasinghe, R. (2016). Quest to identify geochemical risk factors associated 
with chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu) in an endemic region of 
Sri Lanka—a multimedia laboratory analysis of biological, food, and 
environmental samples. Environ Monit Assess, 188 (10), 548. 
Lin, C. L., Lee, C. F., Chiu, W. Y. (2005). Preparation and properties of poly (acrylic 
acid) oligomer stabilized superparamagnetic ferrofluid. J Colloid Interface Sci. 
291, 411–20. 
Lin, L., Lin, Y., Li, C., Wu, D., & Kong, H. (2016). Synthesis of zeolite/hydrous metal 
oxide composites from coal fly ash as efficient adsorbents for removal of 
methylene blue from water. Int. J Miner. Process.148, 32–40. 
Liu, A., Liu, J., Zhang, W. (2005). Transformation and composition evolution of 
nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) synthesised by borohydride reduction in static 
water, Chemosphere, 119, 1068–1074.  
Liu, H., Zhang, J., Ngo, H. H., Guo, W., Wu, H., Guo, Z., Cheng, C., and Zhang, C., 
(2015). Effect on physical and chemical characteristics of activated carbon on 
adsorption of trimethoprim: Mechanism study, RSC Adv., Royal Society of 
Chremistry. 28, 335-348. 
Liu, J., Liu, A. Zhang, W. (2016). The influence of polyelectrolyte modification on 
nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI): Aggregation, sedimentation, and reactivity with 
Ni (II) in water, Chem Eng J, 303, 268–274.  
Liang, B.M., Sharp, R.E. & Baskin, T.I., (1997). “Regulation of Growth Anisotropy in 
Well-Watered and Water-Stressed Maize Roots”. Plant Physiol., (115), pp.101-11. 
317 
 
Loryuenyong, V., Totepvimarn, K., Eimburanapravat, P., Boonchompoo, W. Achanai 
Buasri, A. (2013). Preparation and Characterization of Reduced Graphene Oxide 
Sheets via Water-Based Exfoliation and Reduction Methods, Adv. Mater. Sci. 
Eng., 923403.  
Lounici, H., Belhocine, D., Grib, H., Drouiche, M., Pauss, A., & Mameri, N. (2004). 
Fluoride removal with electro-activated alumina. Desalination, 287–293. 
Lovre, D., Sulay Shah, S., Sihota, A. & Fonseca, V. A. (2018). Managing Diabetes and 
cardiovascular risk in chronic kidney disease patients. Endocrinol Metab Clin 
North Am., 47(1), 237–257. 
Lukchis, G. M. (1973). Adsorption systems. Pt. 1: Design by mass transfer zone 
concept. Chem Eng New York, 111-116. 
Lv, D., Liu, Y., Zhou, J., Yang, K., Lou, Z., Baig, S. A., Xu, X. (2018). Application of 
EDTA-functionalized bamboo activated carbon (BAC) for Pb(II) and Cu(II) 
removal from aqueous solutions, Appl. Surf. Sci. 428, 648–658. 
Ma, L., Wei, Q., Chen, Y. & Song, Q. (2018). Removal of cadmium from aqueous 
solutions using industrial coal fly ash-nZV. Royal society open science, 5, 171051. 
Mahagamage, M. G., & Manage, P. M. (2017). Water quality and microbial 
contamination statust of Madawachchiya, Padaviya and Kebathigollawa areas in 
Anuradhapura district. Proceeding of the national aquatic resources research and 
development agency (NARA) p. 45. Sri Lanka: NARA. 
Mahagamage, M. G. Y. L., & Manage, P. M. (2019). Water quality and microbial 
contamination status of Madawachchiya, Padaviya and Kebithigollewa areas in 
Anuradhapura District, Sri Lanka. J. Water Land Dev., 42(1), 1–11.  
318 
 
Mallick, A., Mohaptra, B. C., & Sarangi, N. (2010). Bioaccumulation of sodium, 
potassium, calcium and magnesium in Rohu, Labeo rohita (Ham.) fry. Curr. World 
Environ., 111-116. 
 MeiJiao, L. Jing, L. XuYu, Y. Changan, Z. Jia, Y. Hao, H. & XianBao, W. 2013 
Applications of graphene-based materials in environmental protection and 
detection. Chinese Science Bulletin 58, 2698–2710. 
Mohapatra, M., Anand, S., Mishra, B. K., Giles, D. E. Singh, P. (2009). Review of 
fluoride removal from drinking water, J. Environ. Manage. 91, 67–77.   
Melles, Z. & Kiss, S., 1992. Influence of the magnesium content of drinking water and 
of magnesium therapy on the occurrence of preeclampsia, 
http://www.pelicanwater.com 
Mohapatra, M., Mohapatra, L., Singh, P., Anand, S., Mishra, B. K. (2010). A 
comparative study on Pb (II), Cd (II), Cu (II), Co (II) adsorption from single and 
binary aqueous solutions on additive assisted nano-structured goethite, Int. J. Eng. 
Sci. Technol. 2, 89–103.  
Majewska-Nowak, K., Grzegorzek, M., & Kabsch-Korbutowicz, M. (2015). Removal of 
fluoride ions by batch electrodialysis. Environ Prot Eng, 67–81. 
Marinković, D. M., Stanković, M. V., Veličković, A. V., Avramović, J. M., Cakić, M. 
D., & Veljković, V. B. (2015). The synthesis of CaO loaded onto Al2O3 from 
calcium acetate and its application in transesterification of the sunflower oil. Adv 
Technol, 26–32. 
Melles, Z. & Kiss, S. (1992). Influence of the magnesium content of drinking water and 
of magnesium therapy on the occurrence of preeclampsia. Magnes Res., 5(4), 277–
286. 
319 
 
Mishra, M. K. (2016). Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrophotometry studies of 
chromium trioxide-phthalic acid complexes. Chem. Sci. Trans, 5(3), 770–774. 
Miyake, Y. et al., (2004). “Ecological association of water hardness with prevalence of 
childhood atopic dermatitis in a Japanese urban area”. Environ Res., I(94), pp.33-
37. 
Mohseni-Bandpi, A., Kakavandi, B., Kalantary, R. R., Azari, A., Keramati, A. (2015). 
Development of a novel magnetite-chitosan composite for the removal of fluoride 
from drinking water: Adsorption modelling and optimization. RSC Adv. 5, 73279–
73289. 
Mohri, T., Hisanaga, A. & Ishinishi, N. (1990). Arsenic intake and excretion by 
Japanese adults: a 7-day duplicate diet study. Food Chem Toxicol, 521–529. 
Mohsin, M., Safdar, S., Asghar, F. & Jamal, F., (2013). Assessment of Drinking Water 
Quality and its Impact on Residents Health in Bahawalpur City. Int. J. of Hum and 
Soci. Sci., III (15), 114–128. 
Moreno-Piraj´an, J. C., Rangel, D., Amaya, B., Vargas, E. M., & Giraldo, L. (2008). 
Design and Construction of Equipment to Make Adsorption at Pilot Plant Scale of 
Heavy Metals. Verlag der Zeitschrift fu¨r Naturforschung, 454-461. 
Morel, F. M., & Hering, J. G. (1993). Principles and Applications of Aquatic Chemistry. 
Wiley. 
Moustafa, M. T. (2017). Removal of pathogenic bacteria from waste water using silver 
nanoparticles synthesized by two fungal species. Wat. Sci., 31, 164–176. 
Mu¨ller, C. M., Pejcic, B., Esteban, L., Piane, C. D., Raven, M., & Mizaikoff, B. (2014). 
Infrared attenuated total reflectance spectroscopy: an innovative strategy for 
analyzing mineral components in energy relevant systems. Sci. Rep., 4, 6764. 
320 
 
Naik, B., Prasad, V. S. & Ghosh, N. N. (2010). Development of a simple aqueous 
solution based chemical method for synthesis of mesoporous c-alumina powders 
with disordered pore structure. J Porous Mater, 115–121.  
Naddy, R. B., Stubblefield, W. A., May, J. R., Tucker, S. A., Hockett, J. R. (2002). The 
effect of calcium and magnesium ratios on the toxicity of copper to five aquatic 
species in freshwater, Environ Toxicol Chem. 21(2):347-52. 
Nanayakkara, S., Senevirathna, S. T. M. L. D., Karunaratne, U., Chandrajith, R., Harada, 
K. H., Hitomi, T., Watanabe, T., Abeysekera, T., Aturaliya, T. N. C. & Koizumi, 
A. (2012a). Evidence of tubular damage in the very early stage of chronic kidney 
disease of uncertain etiology in the North Central Province of Sri Lanka: A cross-
sectional study. Environ Health Prev Med. 17(2), 109–117. 
Nghiem, L. D. Schafer A. I., & Elimelech, M. (2004). Removal of natural hormones by 
nanofiltration membranes: measurement, modelling and mechanisms, Environ. Sci. 
Technol., 38(19), 1888–1896. 
Noble, A., Amerasinghe, P., Manthrithilake, H., & Arasalingam, S. (2014). Review of 
literature on chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu) in Sri Lanka. 
158, IWMI. 
NDWQSN. (2005). National drinking water quality standards. Nepal: Ministry of 
Physical Planning and Works. 
NSDWQ. (2008). National Standards for Drinking Water Quality. Government of 
Pakistan: Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency, Ministry of Environment. 
NSPRC. (2006). Standards of drinking water quality. China: Ministry of Health. 
NSW. (2008). Dialysis Water Pre-treatment for In-Centre and Satellite Haemodialysis 
Units in NSW: A Set of Guidelines. Sidney: Renal Services Network, Liverpool 
Hospital 
321 
 
Obregón-Valencia, D. & Sun-Kou, M. R. (2014). Comparative cadmium adsorption 
study on activated carbon prepared from aguaje (Mauritia flexuosa) and olive fruit 
stones (Olea europaea L.). J. Environ. Chem. Eng., 2, 2280–2288. 
Orantes, C. M., Herrera, R., Almaguer, M., Brizuela, E. G., Núñez, L., Alvarado, N. P., 
Orellana, P. (2014). Epidemiology of chronic kidney disease in adults of 
Salvadoran agricultural communities. MEDICC Rev., 16(2):23-30. 
Paranagama, D., 2014. Chronic kidney disease of unknown origin in Sri Lanka and its 
relation to drinking water supplies. PhD Thesis. 
Paulchamy B., Arthi, G., & Lignesh, B. D. (2015). Simple Approach to Stepwise 
Synthesis of Graphene Oxide Nanomaterial.  J. Nanomed. Nanotechnol., 6 (1), 
253. 
Panmand, R. P., Patil, R. H., Kale, B. B., Nikam, L. K., Kulkarni, M. V., Thombre, D. 
K., & Gosavib, S. W. (2014). Self assembly of nanostructured hexagonal cobalt 
dendrites: an efficient anti-coliform agent. RSC Adv., 4(9), 4586–4595. 
Patnaik, S., Mishra, P. C., Nayak, R. N., Giri, A. K. (2015). Removal of fluoride from 
aqueous solution using chitosan-iron complex. J Anal Bioanal Tech. 7, 326. 
Patterson, P., (1939). The Scherrer Formula for X-Ray Particle Size Determination. 
Phys. Rev, 56, 978. 
Peng, S., Wang, R., Yang, L., He, L. H., & Liu, X. (2018). Biosorption of copper, zinc, 
cadmium and chromium ions from aqueous solution by natural foxtail millet shell. 
Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 61–69.  
Perera, B. T., Rajapaksha, R. H., Arachchige, R. C., & Kottegoda, I. R. (2020). Cost-
effective and non-toxic method to modify clay to increase the hardness adsorption 
capacity of clay. Int. J. Chem. Sci., 22–27. 
322 
 
Peraza, S., Wesseling, C., Aragon, A., Leiva, R., García-Trabanino, R. A., Torres, C., 
Hogstedt, C. (2012). Decreased kidney function among agricultural workers in El 
Salvador. Am J Kidney Dis., 59(4), 531-540. 
Petala, E., Dimos, K., Douvalis, A., Bakas, T., Tucek, J., Zboril, R., & Karakassides, M. 
A. (2013). Nanoscale zero-valent iron supported on mesoporous silica: 
Characterization and reactivity for Cr(VI) removal from aqueous solution. J 
Hazard Mater. 261, 295–306. 
Pez-Cervantes, J. L., Sa´nchez-Machado, D. I., Sa´nchez-Duarte, R. G. & Correa-
Murrieta, M. A. (2018). Study of a fixed-bed column in the adsorption of an azo 
dye from an aqueous medium using a chitosan–glutaraldehyde biosorbent. Adsorpt 
Sci Technol, 36(1-2), 215–232. 
Pitawala, L., Nanayakkara, W. H., & Nanayakkara, K. G. (2020). Utilization of coal fly 
ash in the adsorptive removal of fluoride from contaminated groundwater. Mater. 
Sci. Eng., 849 012025 
Popkin, B.M., D’Anci, K. E. & Rosenberg, I. H., (2010). Water, Hydration and Health. 
Nutr Rev, VIII (68), 439–458. 
Prathibha, C., Sharma, B., Chunduri, L. A., Aditha, S. K., Rattan, T., & 
Venkataramaniah, K. (2015). Nano Calcium-Aluminum Mixed Oxide: A Novel 
and Effective Material for Defluoridation of Drinking Water. Sep. Sci. Technol., 
1915–1924. 
Priya, S. S. & Radha, K. (2015). Fixed-bed column dynamics of tetracycline 
hydrochloride using commercial grade activated carbon: comparison of linear and 
nonlinear mathematical modeling studies. Desalin Water Treat., 57(40), 18964–
18980. 
323 
 
Querol, X., Moreno, N., Umana, J. C., Alstuey, A., Hernandez, E., Lopez-solar, A., & 
Plana, F. (2002). Synthesis of zeolites from coal fly ash: An overview. Int. J. Coal 
Geol., 50, 413–423. 
Querol, X., Moreno, N., Alastuey, A., Juan, R., Andres, J. M., Lopez-solar, A., & 
Valero, A. (2007). Synthesis of high ion exchange zeolites from coal fly ash. Geol. 
Acta., 49–57. 
Qiu, X., Fang, Z., Liang, B., Gu, F., & Xu, Z. (2011). Degradation of 
decabromodiphenyl ether by nano zero-valent iron immobilized in mesoporous 
silica microspheres. J Hazard Mater. 193, 70–81.  
Radjenovic, J., Petrovic, M., Ventura, F., Barcelo, D., (2008)., Rejection of 
pharmaceuticals in nanofiltration and reverse osmosis membrane drinking water 
treatment, water research, 42: 3601-3610.  
Radke, C. J., Prausnitz, J. M. (1972). Thermodynamics of multi-solute adsorption from 
dilute liquid solutions. Am Inst Chem J., 18: 761–768.  
Raul, P., Umlong, I. M., Purkait, M. K. (2012). Removal of Fluoride from Water Using 
Iron Oxide-Hydroxide Nanoparticles. J Nanosci Nanotechnol. 12, 3922–3930.  
Ranasinghe, J., & Nanayakkara, N. (2018). Utilization of fly ash as an adsorbent 
material for removing major pollutants in sri lankan ground water. The 9th 
International Conference on Sustainable Built Environment (pp. 23-29). Kandy, Sri 
Lanka: ICSBE2018-423 
Rango, T., Jeuland, M., Manthrithilake, H., McCornick, P. (2015). Nephrotoxic 
contaminants in drinking water and urine, and chronic kidney disease in rural Sri 
Lanka, Sci Total Environ. 518–519, 574–585. 
Reddy B. R., Priya D. N., Park K. H. (2006). Separation and recovery of cadmium (II), 
cobalt (II) and nickel (II) from sulphate leach liquors of spent Ni–Cd batteries 
using phosphorus-based extractants. Sep. Puri. Technol., 50(2), 161–166. 
324 
 
Rivera-Garza, M., Olguı́n, M., Garcı́a-Sosa, I., Alcántara, D., & Rodrı́guez-Fuentes, G. 
(2000). Silver supported on natural Mexican zeolite as an antibacterial material. 
Micropor Mesopor Mat, 39, 431–444. 
Road Development Authority, Environmental and Social Development Division, (2014). 
Rehabilitation and improvement of 5 km to 24 km section of Vavuniya – 
Kebithigollewa – Horowpathana (A029) road. Initial Environmental Examination 
(IEE) Report. Colombo: Road Development Authority, Ministry of Highways, 
Ports and Shipping. 
Robshaw, T., & Dawson, R. B. (2019). Towards the implementation of an ion-exchange 
system for recovery of fluoride commodity chemicals. Kinetic and dynamic 
studies. Chem. Eng. J., 367 
Rolence-China, C. R. (2016). Adsorption studies on water hardness removal by using 
cachewnut shell activated carbon as an adsorbent. Afr. J. Sci. Res., 5(4), 78–81.  
Roncal-Jimenez, C., Lanaspa, M. A., Jensen, T., & Sanchez-Lozada, L. G. (2015). 
Mechanisms by Which Dehydration May Lead to Chronic Kidney Disease. Ann 
Nutr Metab, 10–13. 
Sabolić, I. (2006). Common mechanisms in nephropathy induced by toxic metals. 
Nephron Physiol., 104(3), 107–114. 
Sadaf, S., Bhatti, H. N. (2014). Evaluation of peanut husk as a novel, low cost 
biosorbent for the removal of indosol orange RSN dye from aqueous solutions: 
Batch and fixed bed studies, Clean Technol. Environ. Policy, 16, 527–544. 
Sadiq, M., Chowdhury, B., Chandrasekaran, N., & Mukherjee, A. (2009). Antimicrobial 
sensitivity of Escherichia coli to alumina nanoparticles. Nanomedicine: NBM, 
282–286. 
325 
 
Samiey, B. & Jonaghani, A. S. (2015). A New Approach for Analysis of Adsorption 
from Liquid Phase: A Critical Review. J. Pollut Eff. Cont., 3(2), 1–9.  
Sauerheber, R. (2013). Physiologic Conditions Affect Toxicity of Ingested Industrial 
Fluoride. J Environ Res Public Health, ID 439490. 
Seiferth, O., Wolter, K., Dillmann, B., Klivenyi, G., J., F., Scarano, D., & Zecchina, A. 
(1999). IR investigations of CO2 adsorption on chromia surfaces: Cr2O3 (0001)/Cr 
(110) versus polycrystalline a-Cr2O3. Surf. Sci., 421, 176–190. 
Sen, T., Mahajan, S. & Khilar, K. (2002). Colloid-associated contaminant transport in 
porous media: 1. Experimental studies. AIChE, 48, 2366–2374. 
Sengupta, P. (2013). Potential Health Impacts of Hard Water. Int J Prev Med, 866–75. 
Sengupta, P., Sarkar, M. & Chandra, A., (2010). “Effect of consumption of excess hard 
water salts on male gonadal status in adult albino rats”. Abstract of national 
conference by vidyasagar university, 277. 
Sengupta, P., Sarkar, M. & Chandra, A., (2011). “Hard water intake and its consequence 
on male reproductive physiology”. 18th West Bengal State Science and Technology 
Congress, 113-14. 
Sepehr, M. N., Zarrabi, M., Kazemian, H., Amrane, A., Yaghmaian, K., & Ghaffari, H. 
R. (2013). Removal of hardness agents, calcium and magnesium, by natural and 
alkaline modified pumice stones in single and binary systems. Appl Surf Sci, 274, 
295–305. 
Sevonkaev, I. & Matijević, E. (2009). Formation of magnesium fluoride particles of 
different morphologies. Langmuir, 25(18), 10534–10543. 
Shah, Dawood, M. & Iqbal., M. (2010). Diazinon-induced Oxidative Stress and Renal 
Dysfunction in Rats. Food Chem Toxicol, 3345–3353. 
326 
 
Sharma, G., & Jeewanandam, P. (2013). Synthesis of self-assembled prismatic iron 
oxide nanoparticles by a novel thermal decomposition route. RSC Adv. 3, 189–200. 
Shen, J. & Schäfer, A. (2014). Removal of Fluoride and uranium by Nanofiltration and 
reverse osmosis: A review. Chemisorption, 117, 679–691. 
Sheneshen, E. S., Fathy, M., El-Naggar, I. M., Ahmed, S. A., Shehata, N., & Shehata, A. 
M. (2018). Effective Solutions of Hardness by Using Adsorption Technique on 
Kaolinite Smectite Adsorbent from Aqueous Solution. Int. J. Chem. Sci., 16(1), 
235–246. 
Shimelis, B., Zewge, F., & Chandravanshi, B. S. (2006). Removal of excess fluoride 
from water by aluminum hydroxide, Bull. Chem. Soc. Ethiopia, 20, 17–34. 
Shukla, S., Jadaun, A., Arora, V., Sinha, R. K., Biyani, N., & Jain, V. K. (2015). In vitro 
toxicity assessment of chitosan oligosaccharide coated iron oxide nanoparticles. 
Toxicol Rep., 2, 27–39. 
Sowers, M., Whitford, G. M. & Clark, M. K. J. M. L. (2005). “Elevated serum fluoride 
concentrations in women are not related to fractures and bone mineral density”. J. 
Nutr, (135), 2247-52. 
Singh, P., Saharan, V. & George, S. (2018). Studies on performance characteristics of 
calcium and magnesium amended alumina for defluoridation of drinking water. J. 
Environ. Chem. Eng., 6, 1364–1377. 
Singh, R., Kumar, M., Khajuria, H., Ladol, J., & Sheikh, H. N. (2018). Hydrothermal 
synthesis of magnetic Fe3O4–nitrogen-doped graphene hybrid composite and its 
application as photocatalyst in degradation of methyl orange and methylene blue 
dyes in presence of copper (II) ions. Chem Pap., 72(5), 1181–1192. 
Smith, A. H., Hopenhayn-Rich, C., Bates, M. N., Goeden, H. M., Hertz-Picciotto, I., 
Duggan, H. M., & Smith, M. T. (1992). Cancer risks from arsenic in drinking 
water. Environ Health Perspect., 259–267. 
327 
 
Sivakumar, S. R., Ravisankar, R., Raghu, Y., Chandrasekaran, A., & Chandramohan, J. 
(2012). FTIR spectroscopic studies on coastal sediment samples from Cuddalore 
District, Tamilnadu, India. IJACS, 1, 40–46.  
Song, Y., Dong, B., Gao, N., & Deng, Y. (2015). Comparative Evaluation of Aluminum 
Sulfate and Ferric Sulfate-Induced Coagulations as Pretreatment of Microfiltration 
for Treatment of Surface Water. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 6700–6709. 
Sontheimer, H., Crittenden, J. C. & Summers, R. S. (1988). Activated carbon for water 
treatment, S1: Karlsruhe: DVGW-Forschungsstelle, Engler-Bunte-Institut, 
Universitat Karlsruhe. 
Souza, M. A., Johann, S., Lima, L. A., Campos, F. F., Mendes, I. C., Beraldo, H., & 
Zani, C. L. (2013). The antimicrobial activity of lapachol and its 
thiosemicarbazone and semicarbazone derivatives. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz, 
108(3), 342–351. 
Strochkova, L. S. & Zhavoronkov, A. A., (1983). Fluoride as an activator of enzymatic 
systems. Fluoride, 16(3), 181-186. 
Sudasinghe, M. I., Rathnayake, N., Jayaweera, M. W., Manathunga, J. M. A., 
Gunawardana, W. B.  Herath, H. M. P. C. K. (2014) The effects of consuming 
Reverse Osmosis purified water in CKDu affected areas: An application to 
Anuradhapuara, proceeding of the International Forestry and Environmental 
Symposium 2014, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, University 
of Sri Jayawardanapura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka. pp 45. 
Sudasinghe, M., Jayaweera, M., Gunawardana, B., Manatunge, J., & Madhusanka, G. 
(2019). Defluoridation of calcium-rich groundwater using iron oxide nanoparticles. 
Water Pract Tech, 665. 
Sujana, M. G., Thakur, R. S., & Rao, S. B. (1998). Removal of fluoride from aqueous 
solution by using alum sludge, J. Colloid Interface Sci., 206, 94–101.  
328 
 
Sullivan, J. B. and Krieger, G. R. (2001). Clinical environmental health and toxic 
exposure, Lippincott Williams & Wilkin publishers, 17. 
Sun, Y. P., Li, X., Cao, J., Zhang, W., & Wang, H. P. (2006). Characterisation of zero-
valent iron nanoparticles, Adv. Colloid Interface Sci., 120, 47–56. 
Sun, Y., Fang, Q., Dong, J., & Cheng, X. X. (2011). Removal of fluoride from drinking 
water by natural stilbite zeolite modified. Desalination, 121-12. 
Tansel, B., Sager, J., Rector, T., Garland, J., Strayer, R.F., Levine, L., Roberts, M., 
Hummerick, M., Bauer, J. (2006). Significance of hydrated radius and hydration 
shells on ionic permeability during nanofiltration in dead end and cross flow 
modes. Sep. Purif. Technol. 51, 40–47. 
Tchobanoglous, G., Burton, F. L. & Stensel, H. D., (2003). Wastewater Engineering 
Treatment and Reuse. 4th ed. New Delhi: McGraw Hill Education (India) Private 
Limited. 
Tempkin, M. I., & Pyzhev, V. (1940). Kinetics of ammonia synthesis on promoted iron 
catalyst. Acta Phys Chim Sin. 12, 327–356.  
Thakur, S., & Karak, N. (2015). Alternative methods and nature-based reagents for the 
reduction of graphene oxide: A review. Carbon, 224-242. 
Thuy, D. P., Anh, V. N. & Bruggen, V. B., (2012). Evaluation of Two Low-Cost–High-
Performance Adsorbent Materials in the Waste-to-Product Approach for the 
Removal of Pesticides from drinking water. Clean – Soil, Air, Water, III (40), 246-
253.  
Tovar-Gómez, R., Moreno-Virgen, M. R., Dena-Aguilar, J. A., Hernández-Montoya, V., 
Bonilla-Petriciolet, A., & Montes-Morán, M. A. (2013). Modeling of fixed-bed 
adsorption of fluoride on bone char using a hybrid neural network approach. Chem. 
Eng. Technol., 1098-1109. 
UNEP/WHO. (1996). Water Quality Monitoring - A Practical Guide to the Design and 
Implementation of Freshwater Quality Studies and Monitoring Programmes, Ed: 
329 
 
Bartram, J and Ballance, R. Geneva: United Nations Environment Programme and 
the World Health Organization. 
USEPA. (1991). Water-quality criteria, standards, or recommended limits for selected 
properties and constituents. United State: Environmental Protection Agency. 
USEPA. (1992). Guidelines for Exposure Assessment, Washington: United State 
Environmental Protection Agency. 
USEPA (2018). National primary drinking water regulations, United States: United 
States Environmental Protection Agency. 
USGS. (2012). Water Hardness and Alkalinity, USA: United State Geological Survey. 
Valko, M., Morris, H. & Cronin, M. (2005). Metals, toxicity and oxidative stress. Curr 
Med Chem, XII(10), 1161–1208. 
Van Elsas, J. D., Semenov, A. V., Costa, R., & Trevors, J. T. (2011). Survival of 
Escherichia coli in the environment: Fundamental and public health aspects. ISME 
J., 5(2), 173–183. 
Van Dam RA, Hogan AC, McCullough CD, Houston MA, Humphrey CL, Harford AJ. 
(2010). “Aquatic toxicity of magnesium sulfate, and the influence of calcium, in 
very low ionic concentration water”, Environ Toxicol Chem. 2010 Feb;29(2):410-
21. doi: 10.1002/etc.56. 
Viswanathan, N., Meenakshi, S. (2009). Role of metal ion incorporation in ion exchange 
resin on the selectivity of fluoride. J Hazard Mater. 162:920–930. 
Vyas, R. K., Kumar, S., & Kumar, S. (2004). Determination of micropore volume and 
surface area of zeolite molecular sieves by D-R and D-A equations: A comparative 
study. Indian J. Chem. Technol., 704-709. 
330 
 
Wanasinghe, W. C., Gunarathna, M. H., Herath, H. M., & Jayasinghe, G. Y. (2018). 
Drinking Water Quality on Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown Aetiology 
(CKDu) in Ulagalla Cascade, Sri Lanka. Sabaragamuwa Univ. J., 17–27. 
Wang, Q., Kanel, S. R., Park, H., Ryu, A., & Choi, H. (2009). Controllable synthesis, 
characterisation, and magnetic properties of nanoscale zerovalent iron with specific 
high Brunauer–Emmett–Teller surface area, J Nanopart Res. 11, 749–755.  
Wang, K., Zhao, J., Li, H., Zhang, X., & Shi, H. (2016). Removal of Cadmium (II) from 
aqueous solution by granular activated carbon supported magnesium hydroxide. J 
Taiwan Inst Chem E, 61, 287–291.  
Wang, L., Zhang, Y., Sun, N., Sun, W., Hu, Y., & Tang, H. (2019). Precipitation 
Methods Using Calcium-Containing Ores for Fluoride Removal in Wastewater. 
Minerals, 511–520. 
Warnakulasuriya, K.A.A.S., Balasuriya, S., Perera, P.A.J. & Peiris, L.C.L., (1992). 
Determining optimal levels of fluoride in drinking water hot, dry climates—A case 
study in Sri Lanka. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol, (2), 364–67. 
Wasana, H. M. S., Aluthpatabendi, D., Kularatne, W. M. T. D., Wijekoon, P., 
Weerasooriya, R., & Bandara, J. (2016). Drinking water quality and chronic 
kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu): synergic effects of fluoride, 
cadmium, and hardness of water. Environ Geochem Health. 38, 157–168.  
Wasana, H. M., Perera, D. G., Gunawardena, P. S., Fernando, P. S., & Bandara, J. 
(2017). WHO water quality standards Vs Synergic effect(s) of fluoride, heavy 
metals, and hardness in drinking water on kidney tissues. Sci. Rep., 7:42516 
Weaver, V. M., Fadrowski, J. J., & Jaar, B. G. (2015). Global dimensions of chronic 
kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu): a modern era environmental and/or 
occupational nephropathy? BMC Nephrol , 16, 145. 
Weber, T. W., & Chakravorti, R. K. (1974). Pore and solid diffusion models for fixed 
bed adsorbers. AIChE J., 20, 228–238.  
331 
 
Weragoda, S. K., & Kawakami, T. (2017). Evaluation of Groundwater Quality in 14 
Districts in Sri Lanka:A Collaboration Research Between Sri Lanka and Japan. In 
F. Kurisu, A. L. Ramanathan, A. A. Kazmi, & M. Kumar, Trends in Asian Water 
Environmental Science (pp. 151-160). India: Springer International Publishing. 
Wickramarathna, S., Balasooriya, S., Diyabalanage, S., & Chandrajith, R. (2017). 
Tracing environmental aetiological factors of chronic kidney diseases in the dry 
zone of Sri Lanka—A hydrogeochemical and isotope approach. J. Trace Elem. 
Med. Biol., 44(June), 298–306.  
Wijerathne, C., Weragoda, S. K. & Kawakami, T. (2014). A review of chronic kidney 
disease due to unknown etiology and groundwater quality in dry zone in Sri Lanka. 
International conference on advances in Applied Science and Environmental 
Engineering, Malaysia.  
 Williams, S., (2012). Health Effects of Drinking Distilled Water, Living Healthy, Every 
Topic Every angle, http://www.livinghealthy360.com/index.php/health-effects-of-
drinking-distilled-water-6157/, Accessed: 1st of October 2014. 
Wimalawansa S. J. (2014). Escalating chronic kidney diseases of multi-factorial origin 
in Sri Lanka: causes, solutions, and recommendations. Environ Health Prev Med 
19(6):375–394 
Wimalawansa, S. J. (2020). Molecular and cellular toxicity of fluoride in mystery, 
tubulointerstitial chronic kidney disease: a systematic review. In Reviews in 
Environmental Science and Biotechnology (19). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-
019-09521-0. 
WHO, (1986). “Health impact of acidic deposition. Science of the total environment”, 
World Health Organization. 
WHO, (2003). “pH in Drinking-water”. Background document for development of 
WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. 
332 
 
WHO, (2004). “Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. Geneva”: World Health 
Organization (WHO). 
WHO, 2009. Calcium and magnesium in drinking-water: public health significance, 
Geneva: WHO, ISBN 978 92 4 156355 0. 
WHO, 2012. Investigation and evaluation of Chronic Kidney Disease of uncertain 
aetiology in Sri Lanka, Geneva: World Health Organization. 
WHO, 2017. Guidelines for drinking water quality: 4th edition incorporating the 1st 
addendum. World Health Organization, Geneva, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. 
Worch, E., 2012. Adsorption Technology in water treatment fundamentals, processes 
and modelling. Germany: Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin/Boston. 
Wu, S., Sun, A., & Zhai, F. (2011). Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles synthesis from tailings 
by ultrasonic chemical co-precipitation. Mater Lett. 65, 1882–1884. 
Wu, L., Liao, L., Lv, G., Qin, F., He, Y., & Wang, X. (2013). Micro-electrolysis of Cr 
(VI) in the nanoscale zero-valent iron loaded activated carbon, J Hazard Mater, 
254– 255, 277– 283.  
Wu, S., Kong, L., & Liu, J. (2016). Removal of mercury and fluoride from aqueous 
solutions by three-dimensional reduced-graphene oxide aerogel. Res Chem 
Intermed, 42(5), 4513–4530. 
Xiea, W., Vua, K., Yangb, G., Tawfiqa, K., & Chena, G. (2014). Escherichia coli growth 
and transport in the presence of nanosilver under variable growth conditions. 
Environ. Technol., 2306-2313. 
Xu, P., Drewes, J. E., Bellona, C., Amy, G., Kim, T. U., Adam, M., & Heberer, T. 
(2005). Rejection of emerging organic micropollutants in nanofiltration-reverse 
osmosis membrane applications. Water Environ Res, 77(1), 40–48. 
333 
 
Xu, J., Yang, H., Fu, W., Du, K., Sui, Y., Chen, J., Zeng, Y., Li, M., & Zou, G. (2007). 
Preparation and magnetic properties of magnetite nanoparticles by sol-gel method. 
J Magn Magn Mater. 309, 307–311. 
Xu, X., Li, Q., Cui, H., Pang, J., An, H., Wang, W., & Zhai, J. (2012). Column-mode 
fluoride removal from aqueous solution by magnesia-loaded fly ash cenospheres. 
Environ. Technol., 33:12, 1409-1415. 
Xu, C., Yang, W., Liu, W., Sun, H., Jiao, C., & Lin, A. (2018). Performance and 
mechanism of Cr (VI) removal by zero–valent iron loaded onto expanded graphite. 
J Environ Sci. 67, 14–22. 
Yaguba, M. T., Sena, T. K., Afrozea, S., & M., A. H. (2015). Fixed-bed dynamic 
column adsorption study of methylene blue (MB) onto pinecone. Desalin Water 
Treat, 1–14. 
Yang, C. (1998). Calcium and magnesium in drinking water and risk of death from 
cerebrovascular disease. Stroke, 411–14. 
Yang, C. et al., 2002. Association of very low birth weight with calcium levels in 
drinking Water. Environ. Research, Section A, 189-194. 
Yang, Y., Lin, X., Huang, H., Feng, D., Ba, Y., Cheng, X., & Cui, L. (2015). Sodium 
fluoride induces apoptosis through reactive oxygen species-mediated endoplasmic 
reticulum stress pathway in Sertoli cells. J Environ Sci, 81–89. 
Yin, K., Irene, Lo, I. M. C., Dong, H., Rao, P., & Mak, M. S. H. (2012). Lab-scale 
simulation of the fate and transport of nano zero-valent iron in subsurface 
environments: Aggregation, sedimentation, and contaminant desorption, J Hazard 
Mater, 227– 228, 118–125.  
Yoon, Y. H. & Nelson, J. H. (1984). Application of gas adsorption kinetics. I:A 
theoretical model for respirator cartridge service life. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 45, 
509–516. 
334 
 
Zhang, Y, Zheng, R., Zhao, J. Ma, F., Zhang, Y., & Meng, Q. (2014). Characterization 
of H3PO4-Treated Rice Husk Adsorbent and Adsorption of Copper (II) from 
Aqueous Solution, BioMed Res Int, 8, 496878.  
Zhang, X., Fan, L., & Roddick, F. A. (2015). Effect of feedwater pre-406 treatment 
using UV oxidation for mitigating the fouling of a ceramic MF membrane caused 
by soluble algal organic matter. J Membrane Sci, 683–689. 
Zhang, C., Li, Y., Wang, T., Jiang, Y., & Wang, H. (2017). Adsorption of drinking 
water fluoride on a micron-sized magnetic Fe3O4@Fe-Ti composite adsorbent. 
Appl Surf Sci, 363, 507–515. 
“2540 SOLIDS (2017)”, Standard Methods For the Examination of Water and 
Wastewater, DOI: 10.2105/SMWW.2882.030. 
“2320 ALKALINITY (2017)”, Standard Methods For the Examination of Water and 
Wastewater, DOI: 10.2105/SMWW.2882.023.