f p
pa
okay
n f
lic t
e ef
bje
rs t
d re
and
cap
drivers' life satisfaction, we developed an ordered logit model based on questionnaire surveys in three target cities. In
g the cities examined regarding provincial policies for three-wheelers, the percentage of
Operational system
transpo
y deve
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i, 201
orm of
they have intentions
tly an oversupply situ-
ormer-
oward
ent is
Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 2 (2019) 100050
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Transportation Research Int
j ourna l homepage: ht tps : / /www. journa ls
in te rd isc ip l ina ryhave discussed eliminating paratransit from city transport systems ation (Kumarage et al., 2010). On the other hand, Kandy, the f
capital city in Sri Lanka, has adopted a more severe attitude t
the 3W industry, including its drivers. Kandy's local governm⁎subsidies, or policy interventions (Joewono and Kubota, 2007b). Con-
sequently, the local governments and councils of many Asian cities
cities of Colombo and Moratuwa revealed that
to reduce the number of 3Ws, as there is currenunreliable transport service with minimal comfort and an informal in-
dustrial structure (Joewono and Kubota, 2007a). As a result, the para-
transit market is currently receiving little public investment,
Sri Lanka, 2018). Despite recognizing the importance of the 3W as a
means of transport and an employment opportunity for drivers and
vehicle-maintenance shops, the local governments of the Sri Lankanby contributing to traffic accidents, and also for causing environmen-
tal issues (Cervero, 2000). Further, paratransit is considered to be an
ther, by July 2017, there were 1,009,921 3W opera
the Western Province alone recorded 326,087 3Woften been criticized for having an adverse effect on traffic, such as dramatic growth (National Transport Commission, 2015, p. 22). Fur-
ting in the country;
s (Central Bank ofCorresponding author.
E-mail addresses: kawasaki@ide.titech.ac.jp, (T. Kawasaki), h
(S. Hanaoka), saito.y.ba@m.titech.ac.jp, (Y. Saito), mahinda
nakamichi@ide.titech.ac.jp. (K. Nakamichi).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2019.100050
2590-1982/©2019 The Author(s). Published by Elsev
article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommsocial-economic activity
d/or low-skilled people
owever, paratransit has
For instance, in 2014 the modal share of the 3W in Sri Lanka was ap-
proximately 13.3% in terms of passenger-km, and the number of reg-
istered vehicles was 7.3 times higher than in 2001, indicatingand an employment opportunity for poor an
(Cervero and Golub, 2007). Concurrently, hParatransit is defined as a middle
and private transport and, in man
where public transport availability an
plays an important role (Phun and Ya
paratransit's importance is that it is a fidentified differences between drivers based in the three cities regarding the social capital and work-related variables
that have the greatest impact on their life satisfaction. In particular, we found that drivers based in the city of Kandy
emphasized general social capital variables over work conditions and salary, but the opposite was obtained for the
cities of Colombo and Moratuwa.
rt mode between public
loping Asian countries
ce are relatively poor, it
6). A primary reason for
(Fujiwara and Zhang, 2013; Loo, 2007; Tangphaisankun et al.,
2009), and a number of actions have been suggested for improving
the efficiency of paratransit and improving urban mobility in develop-
ing countries (Shimazaki and Rahman, 1996). A Sri Lankan form of
paratransit, the three-wheeler (3W), acts as an important transport
mode in the country, boasting a high modal share and growth rate.1. IntroductiondThree-wheeler
Sri Lankarivers who have other jobs, and relationships between drivers' societies were revealed. As a result of the analysis, we
addition, the differences amon
Social capital
ParatransitEffect of social capital on the life satisfaction o
Tomoya Kawasaki a,⁎, Shinya Hanaoka a, Yuri Saito a, Ya
a Department of Transdisciplinary Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1, O
b Department of Transport and Logistics Management, University of Moratuwa, Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
A B S T R A C TA R T I C L E I N F O
Article history:
Received 14 April 2019
Received in revised form 20 August 2019
Accepted 1 September 2019
Available online 23 October 2019
The three-wheeler, a Sri Lanka
due to largely insufficient pub
role of drivers' groups and th
scarcely available. Thus, the o
the social capital related facto
interviews were conducted an
ment of three-wheeler drivers
determine the effect of social
Keywords:
Drivers' life satisfactionanaoka@ide.titech.ac.jp,
b@uom.lk, (Y.M. Bandara),
ier Ltd. This is an open access
ons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).aratransit drivers in Sri Lanka
Mahinda Bandara b, Kumiko Nakamichi a
ama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8550, Japan
orm of paratransit, is a popular and important mode of transport in Sri Lankan cities
ransport systems. However, knowledge of the three-wheeler industry including the
fect of these groups' social capital related factors on the driver's life satisfaction is
ctives of this study are to clarify the actual condition of the industry and to identify
hat affect drivers' life satisfaction in three cities in Sri Lanka. To this end, extensive
vealed that national and local governments do not control the numbers or manage-
vehicles, but they do receive rent for using public road space for parking. In order to
ital factors, including working conditions and societal trust levels, on three-wheeler
erdisciplinary Perspectives
.e lsev ie r .com/t ranspor tat ion- research-
-perspect ivesattempting to reduce paratransit (Kumarage, 2014) and plans to intro-
duce a bus transit system across the city. The city is employing means
such as imposing high rental fees on 3W parking lots (spaces where
and transportation considering the Sri Lankan context. However, a
few Sri Lankan studies on social capital are available; for example,
studies on livelihood development in rural communities
(Gunasekara et al., 2017), fisheries (Somaratne et al., 2011), and agri-
culture (Uphoff and Wijayaratna, 2000). Such studies analyzed collec-
tive action and cooperation, information and communication, and
trust and solidarity as part of social capital; thereby, they considered
how these activities enriched social welfare, as well as people's lives.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 describes
the methodology, including the process for interviews and questionnaire
surveys, as well as the study area. In Section 3, the actual situation of the
3W industry, focusing on supply-side factors, is discussed. This information
is based on extensive interviews with several stakeholders in the 3W indus-
try, including a number of drivers. In Section 4, descriptive analysis of the
data collected from the questionnaire surveys is performed in order to iden-
tify the fundamental characteristics of the sample. Subsequently, in
Section 5, 3W drivers' satisfaction with their lives is estimated through con-
densing social capital relationships, which includes their relationship with
their local governments and societies. Finally, a conclusion is provided in
Section 6.
2. Methodology
2.1. Study area
In order to compare different types of cities, three cities were se-
lected as study areas; namely, Colombo and Moratuwa in Sri Lanka's
T. Kawasaki et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 2 (2019) 1000503Ws wait for passengers); this fee is approximately 10 times higher
than those in Colombo and Moratuwa according to the interview re-
sults gathered by this research. Further, within the city, a uniflow traf-
fic system has been introduced, which has made the commute time of
3Ws longer (Kumarage, 2014). Thus, the working environment of 3W
drivers in Kandy is worsening.
In response to this situation, the 3W industry has made several at-
tempts to adapt to the local government's policies and improve drivers'
lives. For example, a trade union for 3W drivers was established in
Kandy in order to protect drivers' jobs and reduce drivers' burdens
(e.g., in regard to payment of rental fees for 3W parking lots). Further,
Sri Lankan paratransit drivers have also organized unique groups,
called “societies,” which offer several welfare services to member
drivers. Societies are being established in all surveyed cities in Sri
Lanka. The 3W drivers are strengthening their relationships with
other individuals, groups, and organizations to establish the means
to facilitate their 3W operation. In emergency situations, such as traf-
fic accidents, they can expect assistance from other members of their
societies or groups, which secures their lives. On the contrary, if 3W
drivers do not trust their government, they feel uncomfortable,
which may have a negative impact on their lives. Therefore, enriching
their relationships with other objects can be considered likely to im-
prove their lives; this corresponds to the creation of social capital net-
works, which are networks with shared norms, values, and
understanding that facilitate relationships within or among groups
(Portes, 1998; Putnam et al., 1994). Further, social capital networks
can exist among friends, family members, former colleagues, and so
on (Portes, 1998). In line with its general definition, social capital is
defined in this study as the richness of the relationships among the
stakeholders in the 3W industry (e.g., the relationship between
drivers and local governments and that between drivers and their so-
cieties). According to Currie and Stanley (2008), social capital de-
scribes the advantage held by individuals and communities in
gaining the benefits of social participation, mutual assistance, and
trust. In this context, social capital possibly ensures 3W drivers' well-
being and their existence in the society. Hence, if we can identify the
social capital related to the 3W industry as an important factor affect-
ing the life satisfaction of 3W drivers, we can improve the drivers' life
satisfaction by enriching the social capital. This is particularly rele-
vant in Kandy, where the relationship between the 3W industry and
the local government is currently worsening (Kumarage, 2014).
Considering the above information, the objectives of this study are
to clarify the actual condition of the industry and to identify the social
capital related factors that affect the life satisfaction of 3W drivers in
the three cities of Colombo, Moratuwa, and Kandy in Sri Lanka. Few
previous studies have examined Sri Lankan 3Ws, particularly in rela-
tion to supply-side issues (i.e., drivers and governments). Kumarage
et al. (2010) analyzed fundamental information regarding 3W drivers
in Moratuwa, including their education level and salary. Meanwhile,
Somasundaraswaran et al. (2006) analyzed the personal characteris-
tics of 3W drivers, such as their age and family size, while
Kirkorowicz (2012) examined the health problems experienced by
3W drivers in Galle City. However, these studies performed only fun-
damental analyses and mainly addressed the attributes of 3W drivers
in Sri Lanka and, to date, no study has examined the 3W industry's op-
eration system or specifically conducted social capital based transpor-
tation research. Utsunomiya (2016) studied social capital formation
in public transportation from the perspective of developed countries,
such as Japan. The study revealed that the service level of public
transportation is correlated with the level of social capital. Stanley
et al. (2010) and Stanley et al. (2012) found that the ability to estab-
lish effective bridging networks is related to an increase in travel
and the promotion of social inclusion. However, these studies do not
discuss public transport users' perspectives on the impact of social
capital and the social capital related factors that affect drivers' life sat-
isfaction. Further, to date, there have been no studies on social capital2Kandy
Colombo
Moratuwa
100km
Fig. 1. Location of the three study areas in Sri Lanka.
management systems, welfare services for drivers, and relationships
among stakeholders.
2.2.2. Questionnaire survey
In addition to the interview survey, questionnaire surveys were
conducted to identify the fundamental attributes of 3W drivers and
their satisfaction with their working conditions, and also to collect
input data for the model that was developed to identify the factors af-
fecting the life satisfaction of 3W drivers. The questionnaire surveys
were conducted between December 5th and 9th, 2016, with 20 sur-
veyors in each city. In each city, the location distribution of the 3W so-
ciety in the city was provided by the local government. To avoid
selection bias, surveyors were proportionally distributed in each
T. Kawasaki et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 2 (2019) 100050Western Province, and Kandy in the country's Central Province. The
location and fundamental characteristics of each city are shown in
Fig. 1 and Table 1. Colombo is the largest city in Sri Lanka in terms
of both economy and population (Department of Census, and
Statistics, Sri Lanka, 2012). Meanwhile, Moratuwa is a satellite city
of Colombo and a commercial and residential area in Western Prov-
ince. In these two cities, a number of buses are operated both privately
and publicly, which represent the primary mode of transport for com-
muting and shopping (JICA, 2014). Trains are also operated and used
for longer-distance trips than buses; however, buses and trains are not
well integrated and there is an insufficient linkage of networks (JICA,
2014). In general, as shown in the interviews addressed in the next
section, 3Ws act as a mode of feeder transport for the buses and trains
in Colombo and Moratuwa. Kandy is the capital city of Central Prov-
ince and the former-capital city of Sri Lanka. Kandy is the home of
The Temple of the Tooth Relic, one of the sacred places of worship
in the Buddhist world which was declared a world heritage site by
UNESCO in 1988. Thus, many foreign tourists visit Kandy and 3Ws
are widely used by foreign tourists as well as local people. Similar to
Colombo and Moratuwa, buses and trains are available in the city
and, in general, 3Ws act as feeder transport for the buses and trains.
However, the relationship between buses and 3Ws in Kandy is more
competitive compared to that in Colombo and Moratuwa (Global
Vision, 2018; University of Moratuwa, 2011).
2.2. Data collection
2.2.1. Interview surveys
Table 1
Characteristics of the three cities.
City
(Province)
Populationa
(year)
Characteristics
Colombo
(Western)
752,993
(2011)
– The largest city in Sri Lanka in terms of economy and
population
– Commercial area
– Has bus and train routes
Moratuwa
(Western)
167,160
(2011)
– Commercial and residential area
– Has bus and train routes
Kandy
(Central)
125,400
(2011)
– The capital city of Central Province
– Commercial, residential, and tourism area
– Former capital and a place of historical significance
– Has bus and train routes
a Source: Department of Census, and Statistics, Sri Lanka (2012).Interviews were conducted in order to determine the operational
systems, the welfare services for 3W drivers, and the relationships
among stakeholders regarding the 3W industry in Sri Lanka. A “soci-
ety” is a driver's group comprised of residents of the neighborhood
(details will be provided in Section 3). Table 2 provides an overview
of the interviews. Face-to-face interviews were conducted between
October 2nd and 7th and December 5th and 9th, 2016, with several
stakeholders in the 3W industry. National-level organizations were
interviewed in order to obtain an overview of the 3W industry in Sri
Lanka. Interviews were also conducted with members of local govern-
ments, the All-Island 3W Drivers and Owners Association, and the
Kandy 3W Drivers' Trade Union in order to obtain an understanding
of the 3W industry's actual operation system, the welfare services
that are available for drivers, the main problems that exist in the in-
dustry, and the relationships among stakeholders. Local governments
are in charge of managing the 3W industry in terms of allocating 3W
parking lots and determining rental fees. Further, city transport poli-
cies are also determined by local governments. We also conducted in-
terviews with a number of 3W drivers to understand 3W operation and
3Table 2
Overview of the interview surveys.
Items Contents
Survey
objectives
– To understand the operation system of the 3W industry
– To identify the welfare services available for 3W drivers
– To reveal the relationships among stakeholders in the 3W
industry
Survey period 2–7th October 2016 and 5–9th December 2016
Survey method Face-to-face interview
Interviewees Colombo
– Ministry of Transport
– National Transport Commission
– Department of Motor Traffic
– Western Province Passenger Transport Authority
– Colombo Municipal Council
– All-Island 3W Drivers' and Owners' Association
Moratuwa
– Moratuwa Municipal Council
– Four societies* (3W driver groups)
Kandy
– Municipal Council
– Kandy 3W Drivers' Association
– Three societies
– Peradeniya Police (Peradeniya is a suburb in Kandy)
Survey
contents
– Revealing the interviewed institution/associations' roles in the
3W industry
– Revealing the roles, problems, and policies regarding 3Ws in
each city
– Revealing the relationships among stakeholders
– Revealing the system of 3W operation and management
– Revealing the role and system of the societies
– Revealing future transport plans and roles of 3Wsarea of the city. Further, the questionnaire survey was conducted
face-to-face with each driver to ensure that the data which was col-
lected was reliable. Therefore, the collected data should be suffi-
ciently reliable; however, it is difficult to check the
representativeness of the sample since population data on 3W drivers
are lacking.
As shown in Table 3, the questionnaire included several variables
pertaining to factors that might affect the life satisfaction of drivers
based on several earlier studies (i.e., Currie and Stanley, 2008;
Orlowskil and Wicker, 2015; Portes, 1998; Putnam et al., 1994;
Stanley et al., 2010; Stanley et al., 2012; Utsunomiya, 2016). The in-
fluence of these variables on life satisfaction was clarified through
model development; hence, in this stage, as many variables as possible
were selected. In this study, as shown in Table 3, social capital is
assessed in two aspects (i.e. general social capital and 3W drivers' spe-
cific social capital). It is noted that the questionnaire form used in this
study is shown in Appendix A.
Personal information includes socio-demographic factors, such as
drivers' age, education level, marriage status, average daily income,
T. Kawasaki et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 2 (2019) 100050Table 3
Overview of the questionnaire survey.
Items Questionnaire survey
Survey objectives – To identify the fundamental attributes of 3W drivers
– To determine satisfaction with working conditions and life as
a whole
– To collect input data for the model
Survey period 5–9th December, 2016
(December 5th in Moratuwa, 6th in Colombo, and 9th in Kandy)
Survey method Face-to-face interviews with 3W drivers on the roadside.
Survey target 400 drivers in each city (20 samples from each of the 20 surveyors
in each city)
Survey contents General matters
(1) Personal information
– Respondent's age, marital status, number of children, average
daily income, education level, whether he/she had a previous
job, whether he/she had a second job(2) General social
capital
(2) Connectedness
– [Informal participation] Importance of family and friends,
importance of meeting nice people during leisure time
– [Formal participation] Importance of being a member ofand time spent with family. These personal attributes might also affect
life satisfaction. Regarding general social capital, the variables were
prepared by referring to Orlowskil and Wicker (2015), which compre-
hensively covers general social capital variables. Thus, the variables
shown in Table 3 have been recognized as influential social capital
factors for determining life-satisfaction levels for not only 3W drivers,
but also general citizens. The general social capital variables applied
in this study can mainly be divided into connectedness and trust in
other subjects. Connectedness includes informal and formal connect-
edness. Informal connectedness concerns participation in civil society
and was determined by measuring the importance for respondents of
family, friends, and meeting nice people during leisure time (mea-
sured using a six-point scale). Meanwhile, formal participation in
civil society was measured through two variables that reflect the num-
ber of voluntary organizations respondents were members of, and for
which they performed unpaid work, such as voluntary work. These
two variables were measured using a two-point scale (i.e., yes or
no). Trust in other parties was measured by analyzing interpersonal
trust, institutional trust, and trustworthiness of individuals. In this
model analysis, descriptive analysis was conducted to understand the fun-
voluntary organization, importance of performing voluntary
work for a voluntary organizationTrust
– [Interpersonal trust] Whether the respondent trusts people in
general situations, trusts people to be fair, trusts people to be
helpful
– [Institutional trust] Level of confidence in institutions
– [Individual trust] Level of trust in other individuals
3W job related matters
(3) 3W driver related information
– [Satisfaction] Satisfaction with the 3W driver job, salary,
parking space fees, welfare service, quality of the 3W vehicle,
and whether the respondent is proud of his/her 3W job/feels
it to be worthwhile
– [Working condition] Whether the respondent is a society
member, has a parking space, has access to a welfare service,
is registered with a 3W association
(4) 3W drivers' specific social capital
– [Connectedness] Relationship with the municipal/provincial
government, importance of relationship with other 3W
drivers, importance of having reliable 3W driver friends,
importance of communicating with passengers, importance of
the society's welfare service
– [Trust] Respondent's trust in his/her society, in 3W group,
members, passengers, municipal and provincial government,
and in other 3W drivers
4damental characteristics of the collected samples. Subsequently, model
analysis was conducted to identify the social capital related factors that af-
fect the life satisfaction of 3W drivers by employing the ordered logit
model. This model was considered suitable since the degrees of life satisfac-
tion differed among individuals, and theremight be differing degrees of sat-
isfaction for each independent variable. For example, when drivers report
that they are satisfied with their lives, one individual may be completely
satisfied, whereas another may only be relatively satisfied. In an ordered
logit model, differences in the threshold of each utility can be considered
to represent potential psychological differences (Train, 2003). The proba-
bility of choosing the mth (m = 1, 2,…, 10 for life satisfaction) category
Pm and the respondent's utility V are expressed by Eqs. (1) and (2), respec-
tively, as follows:
Pm ¼ 11 þ exp V−θm−1ð Þ−
1
1 þ exp V−θmð Þ ð1Þ
V ¼ β1x1 þ β2x2 þ Λ þ βnxn ð2Þ
Here, θm denotes the mth threshold and βi represents the unknown pa-
rameters for n explanatory variables that explain utilityV. The number n de-
pends on the model being applied. The explanatory variables discussed in
Section 2.2.2 are considered.study, interpersonal trust was determined through three indicators:
“trust in people,” “trust people to be fair,” and “trust people to be help-
ful.” Regarding institutional trust, one variable was computed based
on a set of questions that inquired into the respondents' level of confi-
dence in 15 different institutions (question 3.13 of the questionnaire
form, as shown in Appendix A). This was measured using a four-
point scale. The trustworthiness of individuals was determined
through a set of eight questions measuring the extent to which respon-
dents justified untrustworthy or non-virtuous behavior (question 3.14
of Appendix A). This was also measured using a four-point scale.
3W job related social capital variables are also extracted on the basis of
the questionnaire surveys described in Table 3. This section of the survey is
divided into two parts: connectedness and trust. Regarding connectedness,
the importance of having friendly and reliable relationships with other 3W
drivers, communicatingwith passengers, having access to awelfare service,
etc., were considered. For trust, trust in other drivers, passengers, trade
unions, the municipal council (or provincial government), etc., were exam-
ined. All of these variables were measured using a six-point scale. To collect
3W driver related information, questions concerning satisfaction with
working conditions, such as in regard to fees for parking spaces, are in-
cluded in the survey. Further, working conditions, such as whether the re-
spondent is a society member and whether he/she has a parking space,
are examined. Since 3W drivers have various relationships with several or-
ganizations and individuals, 3W drivers' specific social capital factors are
incorporated into the questionnaire.
2.2.3. Analysis method
The main objectives of this study are the (i) clarification of the current
situation and characteristics of the 3W industry and (ii) identification of
the social capital related factors that affect the life satisfaction of 3Wdrivers
in three cities, Colombo, Moratuwa, and Kandy, in Sri Lanka. To realize the
first objective, we conducted extensive interviews with various stake-
holders, as mentioned in Section 2.2.1. Based on these interviews, we sum-
marized fundamental information on the actual operation system and
extracted details regarding prominent operation and management systems
of the 3W industry, such as society and the allocation of parking lots, etc.
To realize the second objective, we conducted questionnaire surveys
with 3W drivers as discussed in Section 2.2.2. Prior to conducting the
' pa
T. Kawasaki et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 2 (2019) 1000503. Present situation and characteristics of the 3W industry in Sri
Lanka
In this section, prominent characteristics of the 3W industry in Sri Lanka
are addressed on the basis of the results of the interviews mentioned in
Section 2.2.1.Fig. 2. Signs for societies3.1. Society: A group of 3W drivers
A “society” is a group of 3W drivers. According to the interviews with
each municipal council, as of December 2016, there are 1050, 200, and
160 parking lots allocated to societies in Colombo, Moratuwa, and Kandy,
respectively.1 The number of societies and that of parking lots are the
same. A society is formed as a social group by neighboring people living
along collector streets. Since societies are not officially overseen by national
or local governments, societies organize themselves to obtain recognition
from the local government. This is necessary because they use the roadside
as their parking lots and the roadside falls under the local government's ad-
ministrative area. Once a society is formed, its members apply for parking
lots for their vehicles and the local government issues a signboard denoting
the number of 3Ws allowed to operate in these parking lots. Therefore, the
local government is aware of the number of societies functioning in its ad-
ministrative area. Once a society is registered, its members are liable for
paying the parking fee to the local government. Further, only society mem-
bers can park and operate their 3Ws in the society's parking lot, and non-
members are barred from entering the parking lot by the society'smembers.
Membership in the society grants a 3W driver the right to operate from the
1 3W parking lots allocated for societies by Colombo municipal council were officially re-
moved (through a special Gazette) in July 2017, and there are now no specific parking lots
for societies in Colombo as of April 2019. In this study, all interviews and questionnaire sur-
veys were carried out before the removal of 3W parking lots in Colombo.
5parking lot. However, the assignment of drivers is not performed by anyone
in the society. Drivers occupying the front of the parking lot are prioritized
to pick up passengers, whereas the incoming drivers accept the following
turns. There is no designated route for the operation, similar to general
taxi services.
In general, each society consists of 15–25 drivers. In large cities such as
rking lots in Moratuwa.Colombo, Moratuwa, and Kandy, there is generally at least one society
along every collector street that is connected to an arterial road. This
means that 3Ws are easily available in almost every location in these cities.
Drivers and passengers generally know each other well; thus, passengers
usually have a good perception of the security of this mode of transport.
Currently, most societies are not accepting any new drivers, as a result of
the present oversupply in the 3W market. The upper limit of the number
of drivers in a society is determined by the societies themselves, on the
basis of supply-and-demand. In cases when a society driver retires, in prin-
ciple his/her relatives assume the driving position, meaning outsiders
rarely become members of a 3W society. In general, each society collects
membership fees from member drivers, which is the obligation of the soci-
etymember, and these aremainly used for the rental fees of 3Wparking lots
and for welfare services for member drivers. Although joining a society is
almost impossible for outsiders, any holder of a driver's license can be a
3W driver, as there are no laws or regulations prohibiting individual busi-
ness as a 3W driver. In each of the three cities examined in this study,
there are drivers who are not members of a 3W society (i.e., they do not
have a parking lot space); such drivers are called “free drivers.” Some free
drivers also have other jobs, helping them to earn higher salaries. In fact, ac-
cording to our interviewswith several free drivers, public officials inmunic-
ipal councils, national hospitals, military services, and police departments
often work as part-time 3W drivers to increase their earnings.
3.2. Parking lots
Municipal councils allocate each society a parking lot with rental fees.
Settlement of a newparking lot requires permission from the respectivemu-
nicipal council. After a municipal council has received a request from a 3W
society and/or drivers, traffic police perform a site survey to investigate the
safety of the site; if the police judge the site to be appropriate, they give
their approval to the municipal council. After granting the society's request,
a sign indicating that the area is a parking space is installed by the munici-
pal council close to the parking lot (an example of such a sign is shown in
Fig. 2).
In Kandy and Colombo, new parking lots are no longer allocated as
a result of the current oversupply situation and transport policy; how-
ever, the number of free drivers is increasing. Only Moratuwa munic-
ipal council continues to establish new parking lots for societies,
mainly because the 3W industry provides employment opportunities
for drivers and vehicle maintenance shops. Parking lots provide soci-
ety drivers with an advantage over free drivers in regard to attracting
passengers. However, while society drivers are only allowed to pick-
up passengers at their parking lots, free drivers can pick-up passengers
everywhere except, based on an unwritten rule, close to 3W parking
lots (i.e., societies' territories). Nevertheless, as a result of the preva-
lence of society parking lots, free drivers have limited areas to obtain
passengers in the city. It is relatively easier for free drivers to obtain
passengers in Colombo, as there is high passenger demand for 3Ws.
Thus, the interviews with free drivers in Colombo showed that they
are not dissatisfied with their municipal government.
On the other hand, in Kandy, since passenger demand is not as high
as in Colombo, the settlement of new 3W parking lots is limited by
local government and this causes dissatisfaction, especially for free
drivers. Further, the number of free drivers is increasing in all cities,
as there are no regulations controlling the entry of new drivers; there-
fore, the oversupply situation worsens yearly. Society drivers in
Kandy are also experiencing a challenging situation, as the Kandy mu-
nicipal government has set high parking fees for societies. Annual
parking fees in the Kandy City area are now 5000 Rs (1 Rs = 0.0066
USD as of December 2016) per parking lot, while those in Colombo
such as those incurred as a result of traffic accidents and vehicle mainte-
drivers, out of the approximately 83,000 drivers in Western Province,
T. Kawasaki et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 2 (2019) 100050Table 4
Sample characteristics and average scores for selected variables.
Colombo Moratuwa Kandy
Sample size 459 457 500
Valid sample
379
(82.6%)
378
(82.7%)
421
(84.2%)
Number of society drivers (free drivers) per
valid sample
131 (248) 145 (233) 191 (230)
Average life satisfactiona 7.33 7.42 8.36
Average satisfaction with the 3W driver jobb 4.11 4.18 4.78
(Average feeling that the 3W job is
worthwhile)
(4.15) (3.93) (4.58)
(Average feeling of pride in the 3W job) (4.27) (4.02) (4.67)
Average satisfaction with salaryb 4.26 4.02 3.87
(Average daily income)c (Rs 2124) (Rs 1846) (Rs 1792)
(Average daily income of society drivers) (Rs 2137) (Rs 1808) (Rs 1812)
(Average daily income of free drivers) (Rs 2085) (Rs 1943) (Rs 1764)
Average satisfaction with welfare serviceb
(question for society drivers only)
4.64 3.90 3.46
Average desire to join a societyb
(question for free drivers only)
3.14 3.26 3.52
Importance of friends, familya 6.54 6.63 7.82
Importance of having reliable friends, family
membersa
4.35 4.51 5.85
Average satisfaction with the municipal
governmenta
3.26 2.85 2.67
Having a previous job 45.1% 47.9% 37.0%
a Unsatisfied or undesired (1)–satisfied or desired (10).
b Unsatisfied or undesired (1)–satisfied or desired (6).
c In Sri Lanka, theminimumwage rate permonth was Rs 10,000 in 2016 (Central
Bank of Sri Lanka, 2019), whereas the poverty line salary level was Rs. 4692 per
month in 2018 (Department of Census and Statistics, 2019). Hence, the average
monthly salary of 3W drivers (Rs. 2000/day ∗ 20 days = Rs. 40,000/month) ex-
ceeds the minimum wage and poverty line monthly income.6had registered by October 2016. In cases where drivers are caught oper-
ating 3Ws without registration, they are fined Rs 5000. Once they are
registered, drivers receive an ID card and a sticker that they should
affix to the windshield of their vehicle. Concurrently, the WPPTA is pro-
viding several services to 3W drivers (e.g., a hot-line service for cases
when there is trouble with passengers, a medical insurance service for
drivers and their families, rental of a GPS taxi meter, discounts on
tires, etc.) to make their job professional and increase their life-
satisfaction levels. In general, drivers appreciate these WPPTA policies.
This is because drivers would like to be socially recognized and have an
official and professional job, even though they need to pay registration
and annual fees. Overall, the relationship between drivers and the local
governments in Western Province (i.e., Colombo and Moratuwa) is
rather good. On the other hand, the Central Province government
(i.e., Kandy) does not provide any such services to 3W drivers.nance. However, a pension service, which is the most desirable welfare ser-
vice for drivers, remains absent fromalmost all societies, sincemanagement
of a pension system is difficult for societies. Social security for 3Wdrivers in
Sri Lanka is relatively poor; for instance, some 3Wdrivers cannot obtain life
insurance policies, as a 3W job is considered to be unstable and to have a
low salary. Free drivers do not have any welfare services since they are
not affiliated with a society.
3.3.2. Developments in Western province
In Western Province (Colombo and Moratuwa), a new policy for 3W
drivers was implemented in 2016. In this new policy, 3W drivers in
Western Province must register with the Western Province Passenger
Transport Authority (WPPTA), which is a body of the Western provin-
cial government. Through this policy, the WPPTA aims to make the
3W industry professional. For example, registered drivers must perform
six months of medical training in order to learn emergency treatment
procedures in case of being involved in traffic accidents. All 3W drivers,
including society and free drivers, in Western Province can register by
showing their drivers' license and paying 350 Rs for initial registration
and 400Rs in annual membership fees. Overall, approximately 25,000and Moratuwa are free and 500 Rs, respectively. These values are ob-
tained from each municipal government. In Colombo and Moratuwa,
parking fees are relatively low because the respective municipal gov-
ernments still consider the 3W industry to be important in terms of
its contributions to social welfare. On the other hand, since the fee
of 5000 Rs/year is too expensive for societies in Kandy, the trade
union of 3W drivers in Kandy, which comprised approximately 2500
drivers, has sought negotiations with the Kandy municipal govern-
ment. Further, in Kandy, parking spaces are sometimes eliminated or
relocated, without the societies' consent. Thus, the policy of Kandy's
municipal government in regard to 3Ws embodies their stance that
3Ws are an undesirable mode of transport (in terms of their detrimen-
tal effects on the environment and traffic congestion), and promotes
public transport (i.e., buses) in their stead.
3.3. Welfare service
3.3.1. Society
One of the most prominent characteristics of a society is the welfare ser-
vice provided for member drivers as a means of increasing drivers' life sat-
isfaction. This service is provided using membership fees collected from
drivers of the society. According to our interview surveyswith four societies
in Moratuwa and three societies in Kandy, on average 280 Rs/month are
collected from each driver. These fees are deposited in bank accounts
owned by the societies. The welfare service generally includes financial
support for drivers' life-related events, such as wedding expenses, funeral
expenses, and medical expenses, as well as drivers' work-related expenses,
4. Descriptive analysis than in the other cities. Fig. 3 shows the main reasons that respondents re-
ported feeling that the 3W driver job is worthwhile, distinguishing the re-
the welfare service). On the other hand, the parking fees in Kandy are rela-
tively high; thus, the welfare service tends to be relatively poor in Kandy.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
ability to make a lot
of money
providing essential
transport
making a contribution
to the city
others
Colombo (N = 379) Moratuwa (N = 378) Kandy (N = 421)
Fig. 3. Reasons that 3W job is worthwhile, in percentages for each city.
T. Kawasaki et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 2 (2019) 1000504.1. Sample characteristics
The characteristics of the sample collected through the questionnaire
surveys are shown in Table 4. In total, 459, 457, and 500 samples were ob-
tained in Colombo, Moratuwa, and Kandy, respectively. Overall, approxi-
mately 80–85% of all samples were valid. Among the collected samples,
approximately 60% of the drivers in Moratuwa and Kandy were affiliated
with a society, while this percentage was relatively higher in Colombo, at
74.1%. All drivers who were not members of a society were free drivers.
It is noted that the share of society and free drivers shown in Table 4 repre-
sents the results of the survey sample, and do not reflect the share of the cit-
ies' overall populations.
Regarding age and education level, although these data are not shown
in Table 4, no prominent difference among the cities was observed. The re-
spondents' ages ranged from 19 to 72 years, with drivers between 20 and
49 years accounting for 81%of the total sample. According to the interview
results, these figures reflect the reality of the market.
4.2. Satisfaction with life, the 3W driver job, and the government
The average level of satisfaction with life among the respondents in
each city is shown in Table 4. Kandy received the highest score in this re-
gard (8.36), while Colombo and Moratuwa received 7.33 and 7.42, respec-
tively. In Kandy, although average income and satisfaction levels were
lower than in other cities, satisfaction with being a 3W driver, as well as
the sense that the 3W job is worthwhile and a source of pride, was higher0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
relationship with other
members of the
society
ease of obtaining
passengers
Colombo (N = 131) Moratuw
Fig. 4. Important benefits of belonging to a socie
7The respondents' opinions regarding the most important advantages of be-
longing to a society, stratified by city, are shown in Fig. 4. This figure shows
that a welfare service is most desired in Kandy, while in Colombo and Mo-
ratuwa this desire is of rather lower importance. Also, Fig. 4 shows that, for
all three cities, the relationship with other members in the society is the
most important reason for joining a society. Evidently, this factor can enrich
people's lives. Hence, societies may play an important role in increasing
drivers' life satisfaction.sults among each city. It is of note that the answer rate of “ability to make
a lot of money” is low for Kandy drivers. This result indicates that economic
issues might not be significant for Kandy drivers in comparison with
Colombo and Moratuwa drivers. Instead, drivers in Kandy may feel their
role is worthwhile because they provide essential transport services to the
city. Meanwhile, in Colombo and Moratuwa, economic issues (i.e., ability
to make a lot of money) are listed as the primary reason that drivers feel
the job is worthwhile (Fig. 3).
4.3. Society-related factors
Society drivers in Colombo have high satisfaction with their society's
welfare service, while that in Kandy is rather low, as shown in Table 4. In
Colombo, the welfare service is relatively rich since the municipal govern-
ment does not charge parking fees (i.e., the society can spend its deposit onwelfare service others
a (N = 145) Kandy (N = 191)
ty. (This question is only for society drivers.)
ic f
tuw
acti
T. Kawasaki et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 2 (2019) 1000504.4. Social capital factors
The general social capital factors (“Importance of friends, family” and
“Importance of having reliable friends, familymembers”) were of relatively
high importance for Kandy, as shown in Table 4. According to the interview
surveys, Kandy is a city that contains a holy site for Sri Lankan Buddhists
and, for the Sinhalese, is significant as it was the capital of the last dynasty
of the Kingdom of Kandy. Thus, relationships with others are possibly val-
ued more highly here than in other cities. Regarding average satisfaction
with the municipal government, Colombo returned the highest score,
whereas Kandy returned the lowest, as shown in Table 4. This is a logical
result since the relationship between the drivers and the municipal govern-
ment is relatively bad in Kandy. Fig. 5 shows the reasons drivers feel dissat-
isfied with the local governments of each city. As expected, “parking fee”
wasmost frequently reported by drivers in Kandy, but the main overall rea-
son for dissatisfactionwithmunicipal governmentswas “not listening to the
drivers' opinions.” From this result, it can be understood that, even though
high parking fees can cause dissatisfaction with municipal governments, a
lack of communication with the municipal government has a greater nega-
tive effect on drivers' satisfaction levels.
5. Model development and discussion
5.1. Specification of the utility function
Using the variables shown in Section 2.2.2, ordered logit models
for explaining 3W drivers' life satisfaction were developed for each
city and driver type (i.e., society and free drivers). Results of parame-
ter estimation are shown in Table 5. The values in parentheses indi-
cate the t-value of each parameter. The correlation coefficients of all
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
not listening to the 
drivers’ opinions
no assistance
regarding subsidies
and welfare programs
traff
Colombo (N = 379) Mora
Fig. 5. Reasons for dissatisfcombinations of variables were checked in order to avoid
multicollinearity and to develop a robust model. In cases where high
correlations were found between variables, one of the variables was
excluded from the model. Meanwhile, several combinations of explan-
atory variables were tested by referring to statistical values (i.e., t-
values and likelihood ratios). The likelihood ratios of all of the devel-
oped models exceeded 0.4 for Colombo and Moratuwa and 0.3 for
Kandy. In general, values more than 0.3 are sufficiently reliable for
the logit model (Train, 2003). In addition, all parameters with signif-
icance levels of over 10% satisfied the expected sign conditions, ex-
cluding unknown sign conditions. It is noted that the parameters
estimated at a 1% significance level could be interpreted to have
only a 1% possibility of being zero in reality, based on the estimated
parameter. Regarding the threshold values θm, which are estimated
when applying the ordered logit model, although they are not indi-
cated in Table 5 due to space limitations, most indicated statistical sig-
nificance, with levels greater than 10%, and parameter threshold
values became larger as choice categories became more positive.
8This means that, for higher expected levels of life satisfaction based
on the variables measured, respondents consistently chose the higher
values for life satisfaction. From this result, the application of the or-
dered logit model was regarded as appropriate and, thus, 3W drivers'
life satisfaction could be measured.
5.2. Discussion
5.2.1. Personal information
Regarding personal information, most of the variables such as age,
marital status, number of children, and education level were not rele-
vant to drivers' life satisfaction. However, “no other jobs available” in
Moratuwa was significant, having a negative effect on life satisfaction,
which means that in the case that a driver begins the 3W job because
he/she has no other job available, their life satisfaction tends to be
lower. In Colombo, “daily income from a 3W job” was significant for
all society and free drivers, which implies that salary issues are an im-
portant factor for Colombo. On the other hand, the level of income is
not an influential factor for improving drivers' life satisfaction in
Moratuwa and Kandy. In Colombo and Kandy, “have another job”
was negatively significant, which implies that the drivers who have
another job have lower satisfaction in their life. As shown in
Table 4, in Colombo and Kandy, the average salary of all 3W drivers
is 2124 Rs and 1792 Rs per day, respectively, whereas that of 3W
drivers who have another job is only 1713 Rs and 1497 Rs per day,
respectively, which is a substantially lower-than-average salary.
Thus, as their salaries are comparatively low, the life satisfaction of
such drivers tends to be lower. Additionally, according to the inter-
views with 3W drivers, working in another job makes drivers
exhausted.
ine policy parking fee others
a (N = 378) Kandy (N = 421)
on with local governments.5.2.2. General social capital
General social capital variables are obviously influential in Kandy, in
comparison to Colombo and Moratuwa. Connectedness variables and
trust variables were also estimated to be positively significant. These re-
sults show that life satisfaction of drivers in Kandy is greatly influenced
by general social capital variables. According to interviews, Kandy citi-
zens' sense of values is generally quite different to that of citizens in
Western Province (i.e., in Colombo and Moratuwa). Kandy citizens
have higher religious piety, and they place greater importance on social
relationships such as friends and family. Concurrently, economic factors
are not high priorities for people in Kandy. Thus, the results of the model
seem to be reasonable, showing that Kandy-based drivers could increase
their life satisfaction by spending more time with people who are impor-
tant to them (i.e., family and friends), rather than spending more time
on their work.
Among the trust variables of general social capital, “avoiding pub-
lic transport fares is justified” is an important factor, with a positive
Table 5
Results of parameter estimation.
Colombo Moratuwa Kandy
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Model 7 Model 8 Model 9 Model 10 Model 11 Model 12
(Entire
sample)
(Entire
sample)
(Society
drivers)
(Free
drivers)
(Entire
sample)
(Entire
sample)
(Society
drivers)
(Free
drivers)
(Entire
sample)
(Entire
sample)
(Society
drivers)
(Free
drivers)
(1) Personal information No other jobs availablea −0.36
(−1.57)
−0.57
(−2.45⁎⁎)
Have another joba −0.38
(−2.08⁎⁎)
−0.19
(−1.05)
−1.01
(2.04⁎⁎)
−0.90
(2.27⁎⁎)
Daily income from 3W job 0.06
(2.11⁎⁎)
0.04
(3.35⁎⁎⁎)
(2) General social
capital
Connectedness Friends are important 0.01
(1.48)
0.21
(1.55)
0.28
(3.22⁎⁎⁎)
0.36
(3.23⁎⁎⁎)
Having reliable friends is
important
0.12
(0.85)
0.17
(0.33)
0.41
(4.41⁎⁎⁎)
0.64
(4.75⁎⁎⁎)
Family is important 0.59
(4.73⁎⁎⁎)
0.70
(5.65⁎⁎⁎)
0.48
(3.05⁎⁎⁎)
0.35
(1.78⁎)
Trust Trust press 0.48
(3.96⁎⁎⁎)
0.49
(3.99⁎⁎⁎)
0.76
(4.87⁎⁎⁎)
0.36
(2.04⁎⁎)
Trust dealer 0.22
(2.83⁎⁎⁎)
0.26
(3.58⁎⁎⁎)
Trust that other people will
provide help
0.25
(2.54⁎⁎)
Accepting bribes is justified 0.42
(2.99⁎⁎⁎)
0.44
(3.16⁎⁎⁎)
0.25
(3.14⁎⁎⁎)
0.59
(4.62⁎⁎⁎)
0.71
(4.49⁎⁎⁎)
0.04
(0.36)
Avoiding public transport fares
is justified
0.33
(2.66⁎⁎⁎)
0.24
(2.35⁎⁎⁎)
0.41
(2.78⁎⁎⁎)
0.58
(3.17⁎⁎⁎)
0.05
(0.49)
(3) 3W driver-related
information
Satisfaction Driving a 3W is worthwhile and
fulfilling
0.81
(8.20⁎⁎⁎)
0.62
(4.05⁎⁎⁎)
0.86
(8.68⁎⁎⁎)
0.64
(5.44⁎⁎⁎)
1.34
(7.43⁎⁎⁎)
Proud of having a 3W job 0.78
(8.11⁎⁎⁎)
0.65
(6.84⁎⁎⁎)
0.61
(5.16⁎⁎⁎)
0.74
(4.55⁎⁎⁎)
Satisfaction with the 3W job 1.40
(12.94⁎⁎⁎)
0.93
(5.20⁎⁎⁎)
1.15
(10.45⁎⁎⁎)
1.27
(9.27⁎⁎⁎)
1.23
(6.97⁎⁎⁎)
Satisfaction with the salary of a
3W driver
0.52
(5.59⁎⁎⁎)
0.62
(5.37⁎⁎⁎)
0.19
(2.18⁎⁎)
0.26
(2.30⁎⁎)
Possibility to earn as much as is
wanted
0.54
(6.16⁎⁎⁎)
0.44
(3.98⁎⁎⁎)
0.21
(2.25⁎⁎)
Satisfaction with fuel and
maintenance costs
0.24
(3.46⁎⁎⁎)
0.31
(4.36⁎⁎⁎)
0.28
(3.09⁎⁎⁎)
0.16
(2.08⁎⁎)
0.35
(3.27⁎⁎⁎)
Satisfaction with the flexibility
as a 3W driver
0.25
(2.64⁎⁎⁎)
0.26
(2.04⁎⁎)
Driving is interesting 0.36
(2.82⁎⁎⁎)
Satisfaction with local
government
0.33
(2.92⁎⁎⁎)
Working
condition
Interesting job (reason to begin
3W job)a
0.94
(2.92⁎⁎⁎)
1.02
(3.19⁎⁎⁎)
0.16
(1.50)
1.13
(2.24⁎⁎)
0.71
(2.96⁎⁎⁎)
0.68
(2.89⁎⁎⁎)
0.62
(2.01⁎⁎)
0.80
(2.11⁎⁎)
Easy to get this joba −0.53
(−2.24⁎⁎)
0.93
(2.30⁎⁎)
Dissatisfaction with the quality
of 3W vehicle
−0.26
(−4.22⁎⁎⁎)
−0.21
(−3.39⁎⁎⁎)
(continued on next page)
T.K
aw
asakietal.
Transportation
Research
Interdisciplinary
Perspectives2
(2019)
100050
9
Table 5 (continued)
Colombo Moratuwa Kandy
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Model 7 M el 8 Model 9 Model 10 Model 11 Model 12
(Entire
sample)
(Entire
sample)
(Society
drivers)
(Free
drivers)
(Entire
sample)
(Entire
sample)
(Society
drivers)
(F e
d ers)
(Entire
sample)
(Entire
sample)
(Society
drivers)
(Free
drivers)
Appreciate the flexibility of 3W
drivera
0.44
(2.17⁎⁎)
0.35
(1.77⁎)
Satisfaction with the flexibility
of 3W driver
0.17
(1.76⁎)
0.12
(2.23⁎⁎⁎)
The quality of the 3W-vehicle is
important
0.47
(2.73⁎⁎⁎)
(4) 3W drivers'
specific social
capital
Connectedness Communicate with other
members/friends
0.12
(1.16)
0.19
(1.20)
0.02
(2.24⁎⁎)
0.58
(3.77⁎⁎⁎)
Have a friendly relationship
with other drivers
0.12
(2.71⁎⁎⁎)
0.24
(2.80⁎⁎⁎)
0.36
(3.21⁎⁎⁎)
Enjoy communicating with
passengers
0.12
(1.27)
0.14
(2.58⁎⁎)
0.38
(3.27⁎⁎⁎)
Communicating with
passengers is important
0
(4 3⁎⁎⁎)
0.48
(2.06⁎⁎)
0.29
(2.45⁎⁎)
Trust Trust the 3W trade union 0.40
(3.83⁎⁎⁎)
0.34
(3.26⁎⁎⁎)
0.24
(1.74⁎)
0.57
(3.83⁎⁎⁎)
−0.61
(−2.65⁎⁎⁎)
−0.42
(−2.12⁎⁎)
−0.39
(−2.56⁎⁎⁎)
Trust other society members 0.33
(0.75)
0.45
(3.21⁎⁎⁎)
Trust police 0.25
(2.09⁎⁎)
Trust people to be fair 0.21
(1.94⁎)
ρ2 0.40 0.41 0.44 0.42 0.47 0.42 0.44 0 0.31 0.30 0.30 0.30
Sample size 459 459 131 248 457 457 145 2 500 500 191 230
⁎ 10% significance.
⁎⁎ 5% significance.
⁎⁎⁎ 1% significance.
a Dummy variable (1: Yes, 0: No).
T.K
aw
asakietal.
Transportation
Research
Interdisciplinary
Perspectives2
(2019)
100050
10od
re
riv
.79
.9
.43
33
T. Kawasaki et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 2 (2019) 100050sign, for both Colombo and Moratuwa. This variable was measured
using a four-point scale (1: always, 4: never); thus, it can be
interpreted that the life satisfaction of 3W drivers in Colombo and Mo-
ratuwa increases if they believe that avoiding the payment of fare is a
bad thing. This can be explained by the level of tension in the relation-
ship between 3W drivers and public transport as an alternative mode
of transport. In Colombo and Moratuwa, the relationship between
public transport and 3Ws is rather better than in Kandy, as 3Ws and
other modes of public transport such as buses and trains operate in a
complementary relationship. Therefore, avoiding payment of public
transport is unacceptable for 3W drivers in Colombo and Moratuwa.
5.2.3. 3W driver related information
In Colombo and Moratuwa, several parameters of 3W driver related in-
formation were found to be significant, having a positive impact on drivers'
life satisfaction; however, most of these variables were not significant
among Kandy-based drivers. According to the interviews with the 3W
trade union in Kandy, Kandy citizens tend to have relatively high place at-
tachment with their city, as a result of the high standard of living and
Kandy's rich history. As shown in Fig. 3, the main reasons Kandy drivers
felt their job to be worthwhile were that they were providing “essential
transport” and making a “contribution to the city,” which are reasons that
are distinct from income-related factors. This shows that, although Kandy
drivers suffer as a result of the Kandy municipal council's transport policy
and their relationship with the council, it does not affect their life satisfac-
tion. This result indicates that Kandy-based drivers are not strongly influ-
enced by work-related factors.
In Colombo and Moratuwa, “driving a 3W is worthwhile and fulfill-
ing” was a significant variable; Fig. 3 shows that 3W drivers in these cit-
ies feel that their job is worthwhile as a result of their earnings. Further,
also for Colombo and Moratuwa, both “satisfaction with the salary of a
3W driver” and “possibility to earn as much as is wanted” were signifi-
cant. In these cities, 3W drivers' satisfaction with their lives was highly
affected by their income, unlike in Kandy. Further, in the comparison of
society and free drivers in these cities, society drivers emphasized sal-
ary, as shown in Table 5. Since there is no regulation limiting the num-
ber of drivers in Sri Lanka, the number of free drivers is increasing.
Thus, the salary of 3W drivers, especially society drivers, is decreasing
annually. Therefore, to increase the satisfaction of existing society
drivers in Colombo and Moratuwa, it is important to establish entry lim-
itations for new drivers.
5.2.4. 3W drivers' specific social capital
Similar to general social capital variables, several variables regard-
ing 3W drivers' specific social capital, especially connectedness, were
significant among Kandy-based drivers but not in Colombo and Mora-
tuwa. This reinforces the suggestion that social capital variables, and
particularly the connectedness factor, are significant for increasing
the life satisfaction levels of Kandy-based drivers. However, among
Kandy-based drivers, these variables are only significant for free
drivers. The questionnaire survey showed that many of the free
drivers in Kandy are willing to join a 3W society as a result of a desire
to communicate with other drivers in their communities. Thus, for
Kandy-based free drivers, joining a society would effectively increase
their life-satisfaction levels.
On the other hand, “trust the 3W trade union” was negatively sig-
nificant for Kandy-based drivers and positively significant for
Colombo-based drivers. This means that in Kandy life satisfaction
tends to be lower among 3W drivers who trust trade unions, and
vice-versa in Colombo. In Kandy, the trade union regularly expresses
drivers' dissatisfaction with the municipal government, and spends
considerable efforts in negotiations, since the policy of the Kandy mu-
nicipal government toward 3Ws is fundamentally negative. Therefore,
when drivers trust their trade union more, they feel more acutely dis-
satisfied with the municipal government and, consequently, their life
satisfaction decreases.116. Conclusion
This study clarified the operation system of the 3W industry in Sri
Lanka, along with the factors that affect the life satisfaction of 3W
drivers in three of the nation's cities. These aspects were clarified
through extensive interviews and questionnaire surveys. In Sri
Lanka, societies, which are drivers' groups comprising neighboring
drivers, are important organizations in the 3W industry. Societies pro-
vide welfare services to drivers, encompassing not only 3W-work-
related aspects but also events in their personal lives, such as wed-
dings and medical fees. The descriptive analysis clarified that the
availability of a welfare service is one of the most important reasons
for wanting to belong to a society, particularly for drivers based in
Kandy.
The fundamental hypothesis background of this study is that social
capital, which expresses the strength of the relationship among the
3W industry stakeholders, significantly affects the life satisfaction of
3W drivers. To analyze this hypothesis, we developed an ordered
logit model to measure the life satisfaction of the 3W drivers.
Throughout the model analysis, general social capital variables were
found to be influential factors affecting drivers' life satisfaction in
Kandy, but not in Colombo or Moratuwa. In particular, connectedness
variables were significant in Kandy, whereas work-related factors
were not significant in Kandy. Therefore, Kandy drivers apparently as-
sign more importance to general social capital than work-related fac-
tors. On the contrary, salary and working conditions were important
considerations for drivers in Colombo and Moratuwa, whereas the
connectedness social capital factor was found to be less important
for these drivers. In Kandy, the relationship between drivers and the
municipal council is particularly bad due to negative policies toward
the 3W industry. However, based on the model analysis, the relation-
ship with the municipal council was not found to be a significant var-
iable affecting 3W drivers' life satisfaction. A possible reason for this
trend is that Kandy-based drivers do not consider work-related factors
to be a significant determinant of their life satisfaction.
This study examines social capital formation from the supply side
perspective and provides concrete evidence to ascertain that, under
minimum regulation, social capital formation in the informal transport
sector results in the sector's establishment within the industry. This en-
sures the future operation of the industry and enables the establishment
of the sector's position as a market player in public transportation. Fur-
thermore, the results suggest that social capital networks are important
for the industry's ability to satisfy its needs by utilizing the public sector.
Several issues remain for further research. For example, the application
of the model to small rural cities would be beneficial for obtaining a
deeper understanding of Sri Lanka's 3W industry, since this study only
considered large cities in Sri Lanka. In fact, rural cities have a different
operation system; for example, some of the cities have no society sys-
tem. Further, parking lots allocated for societies by Colombo municipal
council were officially removed in July 2017, thus an evaluation of 3W
drivers' life satisfaction in Colombo after the elimination of parking lots
should be carried out. Further, examining the effect of social capital on
the life satisfaction of paratransit drivers in other countries and compar-
ing the satisfaction levels in other countries with those in Sri Lanka
would be beneficial. This is another aspect to be examined by future
studies.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank 3W operators and officials of local author-
ities in Colombo, Moratuwa, and Kandy for participating in the
interviews and surveys. We would also like to thank Dr. Wasantha
Athukorala and the students in the University of Moratuwa and
University of Peradeniya for carrying out the questionnaire
survey. This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number
15H02632.
Appendix A. Questionnaire form for 3W drivers
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